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7.1 &nbsp; 二叉树
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7.2 &nbsp; 二叉树遍历
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7.3 &nbsp; 二叉树数组表示
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7.4 &nbsp; 二叉搜索树
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7.5 &nbsp; AVL 树 *
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7.6 &nbsp; 小结
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第 8 章 &nbsp; 堆
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第 8 章 &nbsp; 堆
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8.1 &nbsp; 堆
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8.2 &nbsp; 建堆操作
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8.3 &nbsp; Top-k 问题
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第 9 章 &nbsp; 图
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第 9 章 &nbsp; 图
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9.1 &nbsp; 图
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9.2 &nbsp; 图基础操作
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9.3 &nbsp; 图的遍历
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9.4 &nbsp; 小结
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第 10 章 &nbsp; 搜索
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第 10 章 &nbsp; 搜索
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10.1 &nbsp; 二分查找
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10.2 &nbsp; 二分查找插入点
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10.3 &nbsp; 二分查找边界
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10.4 &nbsp; 哈希优化策略
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10.5 &nbsp; 重识搜索算法
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10.6 &nbsp; 小结
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第 11 章 &nbsp; 排序
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第 11 章 &nbsp; 排序
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11.1 &nbsp; 排序算法
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11.2 &nbsp; 选择排序
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11.3 &nbsp; 冒泡排序
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11.4 &nbsp; 插入排序
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11.5 &nbsp; 快速排序
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11.6 &nbsp; 归并排序
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11.7 &nbsp; 堆排序
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11.8 &nbsp; 桶排序
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11.9 &nbsp; 计数排序
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11.10 &nbsp; 基数排序
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11.11 &nbsp; 小结
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第 12 章 &nbsp; 分治
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12.1 &nbsp; 分治算法
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12.2 &nbsp; 分治搜索策略
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12.3 &nbsp; 构建树问题
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12.4 &nbsp; 汉诺塔问题
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12.5 &nbsp; 小结
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第 13 章 &nbsp; 回溯
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第 13 章 &nbsp; 回溯
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13.1 &nbsp; 回溯算法
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13.2 &nbsp; 全排列问题
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13.3 &nbsp; 子集和问题
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13.4 &nbsp; N 皇后问题
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13.5 &nbsp; 小结
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第 14 章 &nbsp; 动态规划
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第 14 章 &nbsp; 动态规划
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14.1 &nbsp; 初探动态规划
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14.2 &nbsp; DP 问题特性
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14.3 &nbsp; DP 解题思路
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14.4 &nbsp; 0-1 背包问题
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<h1 id="34">3.4 &nbsp; 字符编码 *<a class="headerlink" href="#34" title="Permanent link">&para;</a></h1>
<p>在计算机中，所有数据都是以二进制数的形式存储的，字符 <code>char</code> 也不例外。为了表示字符，我们需要建立一套“字符集”，规定每个字符和二进制数之间的一一对应关系。有了字符集之后，计算机就可以通过查表完成二进制数到字符的转换。</p>
<h2 id="341-ascii">3.4.1 &nbsp; ASCII 字符集<a class="headerlink" href="#341-ascii" title="Permanent link">&para;</a></h2>
<p><u>ASCII 码</u>是最早出现的字符集，其全称为 American Standard Code for Information Interchange（美国标准信息交换代码）。它使用 7 位二进制数（一个字节的低 7 位）表示一个字符，最多能够表示 128 个不同的字符。如图 3-6 所示，ASCII 码包括英文字母的大小写、数字 0 ~ 9、一些标点符号，以及一些控制字符（如换行符和制表符）。</p>
<p><a class="glightbox" href="../character_encoding.assets/ascii_table.png" data-type="image" data-width="100%" data-height="auto" data-desc-position="bottom"><img alt="ASCII 码" class="animation-figure" src="../character_encoding.assets/ascii_table.png" /></a></p>
<p align="center"> 图 3-6 &nbsp; ASCII 码 </p>
<p>然而，<strong>ASCII 码仅能够表示英文</strong>。随着计算机的全球化，诞生了一种能够表示更多语言的 <u>EASCII</u> 字符集。它在 ASCII 的 7 位基础上扩展到 8 位，能够表示 256 个不同的字符。</p>
<p>在世界范围内，陆续出现了一批适用于不同地区的 EASCII 字符集。这些字符集的前 128 个字符统一为 ASCII 码，后 128 个字符定义不同，以适应不同语言的需求。</p>
<h2 id="342-gbk">3.4.2 &nbsp; GBK 字符集<a class="headerlink" href="#342-gbk" title="Permanent link">&para;</a></h2>
<p>后来人们发现，<strong>EASCII 码仍然无法满足许多语言的字符数量要求</strong>。比如汉字有近十万个，光日常使用的就有几千个。中国国家标准总局于 1980 年发布了 <u>GB2312</u> 字符集，其收录了 6763 个汉字，基本满足了汉字的计算机处理需要。</p>
<p>然而，GB2312 无法处理部分罕见字和繁体字。<u>GBK</u> 字符集是在 GB2312 的基础上扩展得到的，它共收录了 21886 个汉字。在 GBK 的编码方案中，ASCII 字符使用一个字节表示，汉字使用两个字节表示。</p>
<h2 id="343-unicode">3.4.3 &nbsp; Unicode 字符集<a class="headerlink" href="#343-unicode" title="Permanent link">&para;</a></h2>
<p>随着计算机技术的蓬勃发展，字符集与编码标准百花齐放，而这带来了许多问题。一方面，这些字符集一般只定义了特定语言的字符，无法在多语言环境下正常工作。另一方面，同一种语言存在多种字符集标准，如果两台计算机使用的是不同的编码标准，则在信息传递时就会出现乱码。</p>
<p>那个时代的研究人员就在想：<strong>如果推出一个足够完整的字符集，将世界范围内的所有语言和符号都收录其中，不就可以解决跨语言环境和乱码问题了吗</strong>？在这种想法的驱动下，一个大而全的字符集 Unicode 应运而生。</p>
<p><u>Unicode</u> 的中文名称为“统一码”，理论上能容纳 100 多万个字符。它致力于将全球范围内的字符纳入统一的字符集之中，提供一种通用的字符集来处理和显示各种语言文字，减少因为编码标准不同而产生的乱码问题。</p>
<p>自 1991 年发布以来，Unicode 不断扩充新的语言与字符。截至 2022 年 9 月，Unicode 已经包含 149186 个字符，包括各种语言的字符、符号甚至表情符号等。在庞大的 Unicode 字符集中，常用的字符占用 2 字节，有些生僻的字符占用 3 字节甚至 4 字节。</p>
<p>Unicode 是一种通用字符集，本质上是给每个字符分配一个编号（称为“码点”），<strong>但它并没有规定在计算机中如何存储这些字符码点</strong>。我们不禁会问：当多种长度的 Unicode 码点同时出现在一个文本中时，系统如何解析字符？例如给定一个长度为 2 字节的编码，系统如何确认它是一个 2 字节的字符还是两个 1 字节的字符？</p>
<p>对于以上问题，<strong>一种直接的解决方案是将所有字符存储为等长的编码</strong>。如图 3-7 所示，“Hello”中的每个字符占用 1 字节，“算法”中的每个字符占用 2 字节。我们可以通过高位填 0 将“Hello 算法”中的所有字符都编码为 2 字节长度。这样系统就可以每隔 2 字节解析一个字符，恢复这个短语的内容了。</p>
<p><a class="glightbox" href="../character_encoding.assets/unicode_hello_algo.png" data-type="image" data-width="100%" data-height="auto" data-desc-position="bottom"><img alt="Unicode 编码示例" class="animation-figure" src="../character_encoding.assets/unicode_hello_algo.png" /></a></p>
<p align="center"> 图 3-7 &nbsp; Unicode 编码示例 </p>
<p>然而 ASCII 码已经向我们证明，编码英文只需 1 字节。若采用上述方案，英文文本占用空间的大小将会是 ASCII 编码下的两倍，非常浪费内存空间。因此，我们需要一种更加高效的 Unicode 编码方法。</p>
<h2 id="344-utf-8">3.4.4 &nbsp; UTF-8 编码<a class="headerlink" href="#344-utf-8" title="Permanent link">&para;</a></h2>
<p>目前，UTF-8 已成为国际上使用最广泛的 Unicode 编码方法。<strong>它是一种可变长度的编码</strong>，使用 1 到 4 字节来表示一个字符，根据字符的复杂性而变。ASCII 字符只需 1 字节，拉丁字母和希腊字母需要 2 字节，常用的中文字符需要 3 字节，其他的一些生僻字符需要 4 字节。</p>
<p>UTF-8 的编码规则并不复杂，分为以下两种情况。</p>
<ul>
<li>对于长度为 1 字节的字符，将最高位设置为 <span class="arithmatex">\(0\)</span> ，其余 7 位设置为 Unicode 码点。值得注意的是，ASCII 字符在 Unicode 字符集中占据了前 128 个码点。也就是说，<strong>UTF-8 编码可以向下兼容 ASCII 码</strong>。这意味着我们可以使用 UTF-8 来解析年代久远的 ASCII 码文本。</li>
<li>对于长度为 <span class="arithmatex">\(n\)</span> 字节的字符（其中 <span class="arithmatex">\(n &gt; 1\)</span>），将首个字节的高 <span class="arithmatex">\(n\)</span> 位都设置为 <span class="arithmatex">\(1\)</span> ，第 <span class="arithmatex">\(n + 1\)</span> 位设置为 <span class="arithmatex">\(0\)</span> ；从第二个字节开始，将每个字节的高 2 位都设置为 <span class="arithmatex">\(10\)</span> ；其余所有位用于填充字符的 Unicode 码点。</li>
</ul>
<p>图 3-8 展示了“Hello算法”对应的 UTF-8 编码。观察发现，由于最高 <span class="arithmatex">\(n\)</span> 位都设置为 <span class="arithmatex">\(1\)</span> ，因此系统可以通过读取最高位 <span class="arithmatex">\(1\)</span> 的个数来解析出字符的长度为 <span class="arithmatex">\(n\)</span> 。</p>
<p>但为什么要将其余所有字节的高 2 位都设置为 <span class="arithmatex">\(10\)</span> 呢？实际上，这个 <span class="arithmatex">\(10\)</span> 能够起到校验符的作用。假设系统从一个错误的字节开始解析文本，字节头部的 <span class="arithmatex">\(10\)</span> 能够帮助系统快速判断出异常。</p>
<p>之所以将 <span class="arithmatex">\(10\)</span> 当作校验符，是因为在 UTF-8 编码规则下，不可能有字符的最高两位是 <span class="arithmatex">\(10\)</span> 。这个结论可以用反证法来证明：假设一个字符的最高两位是 <span class="arithmatex">\(10\)</span> ，说明该字符的长度为 <span class="arithmatex">\(1\)</span> ，对应 ASCII 码。而 ASCII 码的最高位应该是 <span class="arithmatex">\(0\)</span> ，与假设矛盾。</p>
<p><a class="glightbox" href="../character_encoding.assets/utf-8_hello_algo.png" data-type="image" data-width="100%" data-height="auto" data-desc-position="bottom"><img alt="UTF-8 编码示例" class="animation-figure" src="../character_encoding.assets/utf-8_hello_algo.png" /></a></p>
<p align="center"> 图 3-8 &nbsp; UTF-8 编码示例 </p>
<p>除了 UTF-8 之外，常见的编码方式还包括以下两种。</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>UTF-16 编码</strong>：使用 2 或 4 字节来表示一个字符。所有的 ASCII 字符和常用的非英文字符，都用 2 字节表示；少数字符需要用到 4 字节表示。对于 2 字节的字符，UTF-16 编码与 Unicode 码点相等。</li>
<li><strong>UTF-32 编码</strong>：每个字符都使用 4 字节。这意味着 UTF-32 比 UTF-8 和 UTF-16 更占用空间，特别是对于 ASCII 字符占比较高的文本。</li>
</ul>
<p>从存储空间占用的角度看，使用 UTF-8 表示英文字符非常高效，因为它仅需 1 字节；使用 UTF-16 编码某些非英文字符（例如中文）会更加高效，因为它仅需 2 字节，而 UTF-8 可能需要 3 字节。</p>
<p>从兼容性的角度看，UTF-8 的通用性最佳，许多工具和库优先支持 UTF-8 。</p>
<h2 id="345">3.4.5 &nbsp; 编程语言的字符编码<a class="headerlink" href="#345" title="Permanent link">&para;</a></h2>
<p>对于以往的大多数编程语言，程序运行中的字符串都采用 UTF-16 或 UTF-32 这类等长编码。在等长编码下，我们可以将字符串看作数组来处理，这种做法具有以下优点。</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>随机访问</strong>：UTF-16 编码的字符串可以很容易地进行随机访问。UTF-8 是一种变长编码，要想找到第 <span class="arithmatex">\(i\)</span> 个字符，我们需要从字符串的开始处遍历到第 <span class="arithmatex">\(i\)</span> 个字符，这需要 <span class="arithmatex">\(O(n)\)</span> 的时间。</li>
<li><strong>字符计数</strong>：与随机访问类似，计算 UTF-16 编码的字符串的长度也是 <span class="arithmatex">\(O(1)\)</span> 的操作。但是，计算 UTF-8 编码的字符串的长度需要遍历整个字符串。</li>
<li><strong>字符串操作</strong>：在 UTF-16 编码的字符串上，很多字符串操作（如分割、连接、插入、删除等）更容易进行。在 UTF-8 编码的字符串上，进行这些操作通常需要额外的计算，以确保不会产生无效的 UTF-8 编码。</li>
</ul>
<p>实际上，编程语言的字符编码方案设计是一个很有趣的话题，涉及许多因素。</p>
<ul>
<li>Java 的 <code>String</code> 类型使用 UTF-16 编码，每个字符占用 2 字节。这是因为 Java 语言设计之初，人们认为 16 位足以表示所有可能的字符。然而，这是一个不正确的判断。后来 Unicode 规范扩展到了超过 16 位，所以 Java 中的字符现在可能由一对 16 位的值（称为“代理对”）表示。</li>
<li>JavaScript 和 TypeScript 的字符串使用 UTF-16 编码的原因与 Java 类似。当 1995 年 Netscape 公司首次推出 JavaScript 语言时，Unicode 还处于发展早期，那时候使用 16 位的编码就足以表示所有的 Unicode 字符了。</li>
<li>C# 使用 UTF-16 编码，主要是因为 .NET 平台是由 Microsoft 设计的，而 Microsoft 的很多技术（包括 Windows 操作系统）都广泛使用 UTF-16 编码。</li>
</ul>
<p>由于以上编程语言对字符数量的低估，它们不得不采取“代理对”的方式来表示超过 16 位长度的 Unicode 字符。这是一个不得已为之的无奈之举。一方面，包含代理对的字符串中，一个字符可能占用 2 字节或 4 字节，从而丧失了等长编码的优势。另一方面，处理代理对需要额外增加代码，这提高了编程的复杂性和调试难度。</p>
<p>出于以上原因，部分编程语言提出了一些不同的编码方案。</p>
<ul>
<li>Python 中的 <code>str</code> 使用 Unicode 编码，并采用一种灵活的字符串表示，存储的字符长度取决于字符串中最大的 Unicode 码点。若字符串中全部是 ASCII 字符，则每个字符占用 1 字节；如果有字符超出了 ASCII 范围，但全部在基本多语言平面（BMP）内，则每个字符占用 2 字节；如果有超出 BMP 的字符，则每个字符占用 4 字节。</li>
<li>Go 语言的 <code>string</code> 类型在内部使用 UTF-8 编码。Go 语言还提供了 <code>rune</code> 类型，它用于表示单个 Unicode 码点。</li>
<li>Rust 语言的 <code>str</code> 和 <code>String</code> 类型在内部使用 UTF-8 编码。Rust 也提供了 <code>char</code> 类型，用于表示单个 Unicode 码点。</li>
</ul>
<p>需要注意的是，以上讨论的都是字符串在编程语言中的存储方式，<strong>这和字符串如何在文件中存储或在网络中传输是不同的问题</strong>。在文件存储或网络传输中，我们通常会将字符串编码为 UTF-8 格式，以达到最优的兼容性和空间效率。</p>
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