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2.3   時間複雜度

執行時間可以直觀且準確地反映演算法的效率。如果我們想準確預估一段程式碼的執行時間,應該如何操作呢?

  1. 確定執行平臺,包括硬體配置、程式語言、系統環境等,這些因素都會影響程式碼的執行效率。
  2. 評估各種計算操作所需的執行時間,例如加法操作 + 需要 1 ns ,乘法操作 * 需要 10 ns ,列印操作 print() 需要 5 ns 等。
  3. 統計程式碼中所有的計算操作,並將所有操作的執行時間求和,從而得到執行時間。

例如在以下程式碼中,輸入資料大小為 n

=== "Python"

```python title=""
# 在某執行平臺下
def algorithm(n: int):
    a = 2      # 1 ns
    a = a + 1  # 1 ns
    a = a * 2  # 10 ns
    # 迴圈 n 次
    for _ in range(n):  # 1 ns
        print(0)        # 5 ns
```

=== "C++"

```cpp title=""
// 在某執行平臺下
void algorithm(int n) {
    int a = 2;  // 1 ns
    a = a + 1;  // 1 ns
    a = a * 2;  // 10 ns
    // 迴圈 n 次
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {  // 1 ns ,每輪都要執行 i++
        cout << 0 << endl;         // 5 ns
    }
}
```

=== "Java"

```java title=""
// 在某執行平臺下
void algorithm(int n) {
    int a = 2;  // 1 ns
    a = a + 1;  // 1 ns
    a = a * 2;  // 10 ns
    // 迴圈 n 次
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {  // 1 ns ,每輪都要執行 i++
        System.out.println(0);     // 5 ns
    }
}
```

=== "C#"

```csharp title=""
// 在某執行平臺下
void Algorithm(int n) {
    int a = 2;  // 1 ns
    a = a + 1;  // 1 ns
    a = a * 2;  // 10 ns
    // 迴圈 n 次
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {  // 1 ns ,每輪都要執行 i++
        Console.WriteLine(0);      // 5 ns
    }
}
```

=== "Go"

```go title=""
// 在某執行平臺下
func algorithm(n int) {
    a := 2     // 1 ns
    a = a + 1  // 1 ns
    a = a * 2  // 10 ns
    // 迴圈 n 次
    for i := 0; i < n; i++ {  // 1 ns
        fmt.Println(a)        // 5 ns
    }
}
```

=== "Swift"

```swift title=""
// 在某執行平臺下
func algorithm(n: Int) {
    var a = 2 // 1 ns
    a = a + 1 // 1 ns
    a = a * 2 // 10 ns
    // 迴圈 n 次
    for _ in 0 ..< n { // 1 ns
        print(0) // 5 ns
    }
}
```

=== "JS"

```javascript title=""
// 在某執行平臺下
function algorithm(n) {
    var a = 2; // 1 ns
    a = a + 1; // 1 ns
    a = a * 2; // 10 ns
    // 迴圈 n 次
    for(let i = 0; i < n; i++) { // 1 ns ,每輪都要執行 i++
        console.log(0); // 5 ns
    }
}
```

=== "TS"

```typescript title=""
// 在某執行平臺下
function algorithm(n: number): void {
    var a: number = 2; // 1 ns
    a = a + 1; // 1 ns
    a = a * 2; // 10 ns
    // 迴圈 n 次
    for(let i = 0; i < n; i++) { // 1 ns ,每輪都要執行 i++
        console.log(0); // 5 ns
    }
}
```

=== "Dart"

```dart title=""
// 在某執行平臺下
void algorithm(int n) {
  int a = 2; // 1 ns
  a = a + 1; // 1 ns
  a = a * 2; // 10 ns
  // 迴圈 n 次
  for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) { // 1 ns ,每輪都要執行 i++
    print(0); // 5 ns
  }
}
```

=== "Rust"

```rust title=""
// 在某執行平臺下
fn algorithm(n: i32) {
    let mut a = 2;      // 1 ns
    a = a + 1;          // 1 ns
    a = a * 2;          // 10 ns
    // 迴圈 n 次
    for _ in 0..n {     // 1 ns ,每輪都要執行 i++
        println!("{}", 0);  // 5 ns
    }
}
```

=== "C"

```c title=""
// 在某執行平臺下
void algorithm(int n) {
    int a = 2;  // 1 ns
    a = a + 1;  // 1 ns
    a = a * 2;  // 10 ns
    // 迴圈 n 次
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {   // 1 ns ,每輪都要執行 i++
        printf("%d", 0);            // 5 ns
    }
}
```

=== "Kotlin"

```kotlin title=""
// 在某執行平臺下
fun algorithm(n: Int) {
    var a = 2 // 1 ns
    a = a + 1 // 1 ns
    a = a * 2 // 10 ns
    // 迴圈 n 次
    for (i in 0..<n) {  // 1 ns ,每輪都要執行 i++
        println(0)      // 5 ns
    }
}
```

=== "Ruby"

```ruby title=""
# 在某執行平臺下
def algorithm(n)
    a = 2       # 1 ns 
    a = a + 1   # 1 ns
    a = a * 2   # 10 ns
    # 迴圈 n 次
    (n...0).each do # 1 ns
        puts 0      # 5 ns
    end
end
```

=== "Zig"

```zig title=""
// 在某執行平臺下
fn algorithm(n: usize) void {
    var a: i32 = 2; // 1 ns
    a += 1; // 1 ns
    a *= 2; // 10 ns
    // 迴圈 n 次
    for (0..n) |_| { // 1 ns
        std.debug.print("{}\n", .{0}); // 5 ns
    }
}
```

根據以上方法,可以得到演算法的執行時間為 (6n + 12) ns


1 + 1 + 10 + (1 + 5) \times n = 6n + 12

但實際上,統計演算法的執行時間既不合理也不現實。首先,我們不希望將預估時間和執行平臺繫結,因為演算法需要在各種不同的平臺上執行。其次,我們很難獲知每種操作的執行時間,這給預估過程帶來了極大的難度。

2.3.1   統計時間增長趨勢

時間複雜度分析統計的不是演算法執行時間,而是演算法執行時間隨著資料量變大時的增長趨勢

“時間增長趨勢”這個概念比較抽象,我們透過一個例子來加以理解。假設輸入資料大小為 n ,給定三個演算法 ABC

=== "Python"

```python title=""
# 演算法 A 的時間複雜度:常數階
def algorithm_A(n: int):
    print(0)
# 演算法 B 的時間複雜度:線性階
def algorithm_B(n: int):
    for _ in range(n):
        print(0)
# 演算法 C 的時間複雜度:常數階
def algorithm_C(n: int):
    for _ in range(1000000):
        print(0)
```

=== "C++"

```cpp title=""
// 演算法 A 的時間複雜度:常數階
void algorithm_A(int n) {
    cout << 0 << endl;
}
// 演算法 B 的時間複雜度:線性階
void algorithm_B(int n) {
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        cout << 0 << endl;
    }
}
// 演算法 C 的時間複雜度:常數階
void algorithm_C(int n) {
    for (int i = 0; i < 1000000; i++) {
        cout << 0 << endl;
    }
}
```

=== "Java"

```java title=""
// 演算法 A 的時間複雜度:常數階
void algorithm_A(int n) {
    System.out.println(0);
}
// 演算法 B 的時間複雜度:線性階
void algorithm_B(int n) {
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        System.out.println(0);
    }
}
// 演算法 C 的時間複雜度:常數階
void algorithm_C(int n) {
    for (int i = 0; i < 1000000; i++) {
        System.out.println(0);
    }
}
```

=== "C#"

```csharp title=""
// 演算法 A 的時間複雜度:常數階
void AlgorithmA(int n) {
    Console.WriteLine(0);
}
// 演算法 B 的時間複雜度:線性階
void AlgorithmB(int n) {
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        Console.WriteLine(0);
    }
}
// 演算法 C 的時間複雜度:常數階
void AlgorithmC(int n) {
    for (int i = 0; i < 1000000; i++) {
        Console.WriteLine(0);
    }
}
```

=== "Go"

```go title=""
// 演算法 A 的時間複雜度:常數階
func algorithm_A(n int) {
    fmt.Println(0)
}
// 演算法 B 的時間複雜度:線性階
func algorithm_B(n int) {
    for i := 0; i < n; i++ {
        fmt.Println(0)
    }
}
// 演算法 C 的時間複雜度:常數階
func algorithm_C(n int) {
    for i := 0; i < 1000000; i++ {
        fmt.Println(0)
    }
}
```

=== "Swift"

```swift title=""
// 演算法 A 的時間複雜度:常數階
func algorithmA(n: Int) {
    print(0)
}

// 演算法 B 的時間複雜度:線性階
func algorithmB(n: Int) {
    for _ in 0 ..< n {
        print(0)
    }
}

// 演算法 C 的時間複雜度:常數階
func algorithmC(n: Int) {
    for _ in 0 ..< 1_000_000 {
        print(0)
    }
}
```

=== "JS"

```javascript title=""
// 演算法 A 的時間複雜度:常數階
function algorithm_A(n) {
    console.log(0);
}
// 演算法 B 的時間複雜度:線性階
function algorithm_B(n) {
    for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        console.log(0);
    }
}
// 演算法 C 的時間複雜度:常數階
function algorithm_C(n) {
    for (let i = 0; i < 1000000; i++) {
        console.log(0);
    }
}

```

=== "TS"

```typescript title=""
// 演算法 A 的時間複雜度:常數階
function algorithm_A(n: number): void {
    console.log(0);
}
// 演算法 B 的時間複雜度:線性階
function algorithm_B(n: number): void {
    for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        console.log(0);
    }
}
// 演算法 C 的時間複雜度:常數階
function algorithm_C(n: number): void {
    for (let i = 0; i < 1000000; i++) {
        console.log(0);
    }
}
```

=== "Dart"

```dart title=""
// 演算法 A 的時間複雜度:常數階
void algorithmA(int n) {
  print(0);
}
// 演算法 B 的時間複雜度:線性階
void algorithmB(int n) {
  for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
    print(0);
  }
}
// 演算法 C 的時間複雜度:常數階
void algorithmC(int n) {
  for (int i = 0; i < 1000000; i++) {
    print(0);
  }
}
```

=== "Rust"

```rust title=""
// 演算法 A 的時間複雜度:常數階
fn algorithm_A(n: i32) {
    println!("{}", 0);
}
// 演算法 B 的時間複雜度:線性階
fn algorithm_B(n: i32) {
    for _ in 0..n {
        println!("{}", 0);
    }
}
// 演算法 C 的時間複雜度:常數階
fn algorithm_C(n: i32) {
    for _ in 0..1000000 {
        println!("{}", 0);
    }
}
```

=== "C"

```c title=""
// 演算法 A 的時間複雜度:常數階
void algorithm_A(int n) {
    printf("%d", 0);
}
// 演算法 B 的時間複雜度:線性階
void algorithm_B(int n) {
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        printf("%d", 0);
    }
}
// 演算法 C 的時間複雜度:常數階
void algorithm_C(int n) {
    for (int i = 0; i < 1000000; i++) {
        printf("%d", 0);
    }
}
```

=== "Kotlin"

```kotlin title=""
// 演算法 A 的時間複雜度:常數階
fun algoritm_A(n: Int) {
    println(0)
}
// 演算法 B 的時間複雜度:線性階
fun algorithm_B(n: Int) {
    for (i in 0..<n){
        println(0)
    }
}
// 演算法 C 的時間複雜度:常數階
fun algorithm_C(n: Int) {
    for (i in 0..<1000000) {
        println(0)
    }
}
```

=== "Ruby"

```ruby title=""
# 演算法 A 的時間複雜度:常數階
def algorithm_A(n)
    puts 0
end

# 演算法 B 的時間複雜度:線性階
def algorithm_B(n)
    (0...n).each { puts 0 }
end

# 演算法 C 的時間複雜度:常數階
def algorithm_C(n)
    (0...1_000_000).each { puts 0 }
end
```

=== "Zig"

```zig title=""
// 演算法 A 的時間複雜度:常數階
fn algorithm_A(n: usize) void {
    _ = n;
    std.debug.print("{}\n", .{0});
}
// 演算法 B 的時間複雜度:線性階
fn algorithm_B(n: i32) void {
    for (0..n) |_| {
        std.debug.print("{}\n", .{0});
    }
}
// 演算法 C 的時間複雜度:常數階
fn algorithm_C(n: i32) void {
    _ = n;
    for (0..1000000) |_| { 
        std.debug.print("{}\n", .{0});
    }
}
```

圖 2-7 展示了以上三個演算法函式的時間複雜度。

  • 演算法 A 只有 1 個列印操作,演算法執行時間不隨著 n 增大而增長。我們稱此演算法的時間複雜度為“常數階”。
  • 演算法 B 中的列印操作需要迴圈 n 次,演算法執行時間隨著 n 增大呈線性增長。此演算法的時間複雜度被稱為“線性階”。
  • 演算法 C 中的列印操作需要迴圈 1000000 次,雖然執行時間很長,但它與輸入資料大小 n 無關。因此 C 的時間複雜度和 A 相同,仍為“常數階”。

演算法 A、B 和 C 的時間增長趨勢{ class="animation-figure" }

圖 2-7   演算法 A、B 和 C 的時間增長趨勢

相較於直接統計演算法的執行時間,時間複雜度分析有哪些特點呢?

  • 時間複雜度能夠有效評估演算法效率。例如,演算法 B 的執行時間呈線性增長,在 n > 1 時比演算法 A 更慢,在 n > 1000000 時比演算法 C 更慢。事實上,只要輸入資料大小 n 足夠大,複雜度為“常數階”的演算法一定優於“線性階”的演算法,這正是時間增長趨勢的含義。
  • 時間複雜度的推算方法更簡便。顯然,執行平臺和計算操作型別都與演算法執行時間的增長趨勢無關。因此在時間複雜度分析中,我們可以簡單地將所有計算操作的執行時間視為相同的“單位時間”,從而將“計算操作執行時間統計”簡化為“計算操作數量統計”,這樣一來估算難度就大大降低了。
  • 時間複雜度也存在一定的侷限性。例如,儘管演算法 AC 的時間複雜度相同,但實際執行時間差別很大。同樣,儘管演算法 B 的時間複雜度比 C 高,但在輸入資料大小 n 較小時,演算法 B 明顯優於演算法 C 。在這些情況下,我們很難僅憑時間複雜度判斷演算法效率的高低。當然,儘管存在上述問題,複雜度分析仍然是評判演算法效率最有效且常用的方法。

2.3.2   函式漸近上界

給定一個輸入大小為 n 的函式:

=== "Python"

```python title=""
def algorithm(n: int):
    a = 1      # +1
    a = a + 1  # +1
    a = a * 2  # +1
    # 迴圈 n 次
    for i in range(n):  # +1
        print(0)        # +1
```

=== "C++"

```cpp title=""
void algorithm(int n) {
    int a = 1;  // +1
    a = a + 1;  // +1
    a = a * 2;  // +1
    // 迴圈 n 次
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) { // +1每輪都執行 i ++
        cout << 0 << endl;    // +1
    }
}
```

=== "Java"

```java title=""
void algorithm(int n) {
    int a = 1;  // +1
    a = a + 1;  // +1
    a = a * 2;  // +1
    // 迴圈 n 次
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) { // +1每輪都執行 i ++
        System.out.println(0);    // +1
    }
}
```

=== "C#"

```csharp title=""
void Algorithm(int n) {
    int a = 1;  // +1
    a = a + 1;  // +1
    a = a * 2;  // +1
    // 迴圈 n 次
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {   // +1每輪都執行 i ++
        Console.WriteLine(0);   // +1
    }
}
```

=== "Go"

```go title=""
func algorithm(n int) {
    a := 1      // +1
    a = a + 1   // +1
    a = a * 2   // +1
    // 迴圈 n 次
    for i := 0; i < n; i++ {   // +1
        fmt.Println(a)         // +1
    }
}
```

=== "Swift"

```swift title=""
func algorithm(n: Int) {
    var a = 1 // +1
    a = a + 1 // +1
    a = a * 2 // +1
    // 迴圈 n 次
    for _ in 0 ..< n { // +1
        print(0) // +1
    }
}
```

=== "JS"

```javascript title=""
function algorithm(n) {
    var a = 1; // +1
    a += 1; // +1
    a *= 2; // +1
    // 迴圈 n 次
    for(let i = 0; i < n; i++){ // +1每輪都執行 i ++
        console.log(0); // +1
    }
}
```

=== "TS"

```typescript title=""
function algorithm(n: number): void{
    var a: number = 1; // +1
    a += 1; // +1
    a *= 2; // +1
    // 迴圈 n 次
    for(let i = 0; i < n; i++){ // +1每輪都執行 i ++
        console.log(0); // +1
    }
}
```

=== "Dart"

```dart title=""
void algorithm(int n) {
  int a = 1; // +1
  a = a + 1; // +1
  a = a * 2; // +1
  // 迴圈 n 次
  for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) { // +1每輪都執行 i ++
    print(0); // +1
  }
}
```

=== "Rust"

```rust title=""
fn algorithm(n: i32) {
    let mut a = 1;   // +1
    a = a + 1;      // +1
    a = a * 2;      // +1

    // 迴圈 n 次
    for _ in 0..n { // +1每輪都執行 i ++
        println!("{}", 0); // +1
    }
}
```

=== "C"

```c title=""
void algorithm(int n) {
    int a = 1;  // +1
    a = a + 1;  // +1
    a = a * 2;  // +1
    // 迴圈 n 次
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {   // +1每輪都執行 i ++
        printf("%d", 0);            // +1
    }
}  
```

=== "Kotlin"

```kotlin title=""
fun algorithm(n: Int) {
    var a = 1 // +1
    a = a + 1 // +1
    a = a * 2 // +1
    // 迴圈 n 次
    for (i in 0..<n) { // +1每輪都執行 i ++
        println(0) // +1
    }
}
```

=== "Ruby"

```ruby title=""
def algorithm(n)
    a = 1       # +1
    a = a + 1   # +1
    a = a * 2   # +1
    # 迴圈 n 次
    (0...n).each do # +1
        puts 0      # +1
    end
end
```

=== "Zig"

```zig title=""
fn algorithm(n: usize) void {
    var a: i32 = 1; // +1
    a += 1; // +1
    a *= 2; // +1
    // 迴圈 n 次
    for (0..n) |_| { // +1每輪都執行 i ++
        std.debug.print("{}\n", .{0}); // +1
    }
}
```

設演算法的操作數量是一個關於輸入資料大小 n 的函式,記為 T(n) ,則以上函式的操作數量為:


T(n) = 3 + 2n

T(n) 是一次函式,說明其執行時間的增長趨勢是線性的,因此它的時間複雜度是線性階。

我們將線性階的時間複雜度記為 O(n) ,這個數學符號稱為O 記號big-O notation,表示函式 T(n)漸近上界asymptotic upper bound

時間複雜度分析本質上是計算“操作數量 T(n)”的漸近上界,它具有明確的數學定義。

!!! abstract "函式漸近上界"

若存在正實數 $c$ 和實數 $n_0$ ,使得對於所有的 $n > n_0$ ,均有 $T(n) \leq c \cdot f(n)$ ,則可認為 $f(n)$ 給出了 $T(n)$ 的一個漸近上界,記為 $T(n) = O(f(n))$ 。

如圖 2-8 所示,計算漸近上界就是尋找一個函式 f(n) ,使得當 n 趨向於無窮大時,T(n)f(n) 處於相同的增長級別,僅相差一個常數項 c 的倍數。

函式的漸近上界{ class="animation-figure" }

圖 2-8   函式的漸近上界

2.3.3   推算方法

漸近上界的數學味兒有點重,如果你感覺沒有完全理解,也無須擔心。我們可以先掌握推算方法,在不斷的實踐中,就可以逐漸領悟其數學意義。

根據定義,確定 f(n) 之後,我們便可得到時間複雜度 O(f(n)) 。那麼如何確定漸近上界 f(n) 呢?總體分為兩步:首先統計操作數量,然後判斷漸近上界。

1.   第一步:統計操作數量

針對程式碼,逐行從上到下計算即可。然而,由於上述 c \cdot f(n) 中的常數項 c 可以取任意大小,因此操作數量 T(n) 中的各種係數、常數項都可以忽略。根據此原則,可以總結出以下計數簡化技巧。

  1. 忽略 T(n) 中的常數項。因為它們都與 n 無關,所以對時間複雜度不產生影響。
  2. 省略所有係數。例如,迴圈 2n 次、5n + 1 次等,都可以簡化記為 n 次,因為 n 前面的係數對時間複雜度沒有影響。
  3. 迴圈巢狀時使用乘法。總操作數量等於外層迴圈和內層迴圈操作數量之積,每一層迴圈依然可以分別套用第 1. 點和第 2. 點的技巧。

給定一個函式,我們可以用上述技巧來統計操作數量:

=== "Python"

```python title=""
def algorithm(n: int):
    a = 1      # +0技巧 1
    a = a + n  # +0技巧 1
    # +n技巧 2
    for i in range(5 * n + 1):
        print(0)
    # +n*n技巧 3
    for i in range(2 * n):
        for j in range(n + 1):
            print(0)
```

=== "C++"

```cpp title=""
void algorithm(int n) {
    int a = 1;  // +0技巧 1
    a = a + n;  // +0技巧 1
    // +n技巧 2
    for (int i = 0; i < 5 * n + 1; i++) {
        cout << 0 << endl;
    }
    // +n*n技巧 3
    for (int i = 0; i < 2 * n; i++) {
        for (int j = 0; j < n + 1; j++) {
            cout << 0 << endl;
        }
    }
}
```

=== "Java"

```java title=""
void algorithm(int n) {
    int a = 1;  // +0技巧 1
    a = a + n;  // +0技巧 1
    // +n技巧 2
    for (int i = 0; i < 5 * n + 1; i++) {
        System.out.println(0);
    }
    // +n*n技巧 3
    for (int i = 0; i < 2 * n; i++) {
        for (int j = 0; j < n + 1; j++) {
            System.out.println(0);
        }
    }
}
```

=== "C#"

```csharp title=""
void Algorithm(int n) {
    int a = 1;  // +0技巧 1
    a = a + n;  // +0技巧 1
    // +n技巧 2
    for (int i = 0; i < 5 * n + 1; i++) {
        Console.WriteLine(0);
    }
    // +n*n技巧 3
    for (int i = 0; i < 2 * n; i++) {
        for (int j = 0; j < n + 1; j++) {
            Console.WriteLine(0);
        }
    }
}
```

=== "Go"

```go title=""
func algorithm(n int) {
    a := 1     // +0技巧 1
    a = a + n  // +0技巧 1
    // +n技巧 2
    for i := 0; i < 5 * n + 1; i++ {
        fmt.Println(0)
    }
    // +n*n技巧 3
    for i := 0; i < 2 * n; i++ {
        for j := 0; j < n + 1; j++ {
            fmt.Println(0)
        }
    }
}
```

=== "Swift"

```swift title=""
func algorithm(n: Int) {
    var a = 1 // +0技巧 1
    a = a + n // +0技巧 1
    // +n技巧 2
    for _ in 0 ..< (5 * n + 1) {
        print(0)
    }
    // +n*n技巧 3
    for _ in 0 ..< (2 * n) {
        for _ in 0 ..< (n + 1) {
            print(0)
        }
    }
}
```

=== "JS"

```javascript title=""
function algorithm(n) {
    let a = 1;  // +0技巧 1
    a = a + n;  // +0技巧 1
    // +n技巧 2
    for (let i = 0; i < 5 * n + 1; i++) {
        console.log(0);
    }
    // +n*n技巧 3
    for (let i = 0; i < 2 * n; i++) {
        for (let j = 0; j < n + 1; j++) {
            console.log(0);
        }
    }
}
```

=== "TS"

```typescript title=""
function algorithm(n: number): void {
    let a = 1;  // +0技巧 1
    a = a + n;  // +0技巧 1
    // +n技巧 2
    for (let i = 0; i < 5 * n + 1; i++) {
        console.log(0);
    }
    // +n*n技巧 3
    for (let i = 0; i < 2 * n; i++) {
        for (let j = 0; j < n + 1; j++) {
            console.log(0);
        }
    }
}
```

=== "Dart"

```dart title=""
void algorithm(int n) {
  int a = 1; // +0技巧 1
  a = a + n; // +0技巧 1
  // +n技巧 2
  for (int i = 0; i < 5 * n + 1; i++) {
    print(0);
  }
  // +n*n技巧 3
  for (int i = 0; i < 2 * n; i++) {
    for (int j = 0; j < n + 1; j++) {
      print(0);
    }
  }
}
```

=== "Rust"

```rust title=""
fn algorithm(n: i32) {
    let mut a = 1;     // +0技巧 1
    a = a + n;        // +0技巧 1

    // +n技巧 2
    for i in 0..(5 * n + 1) {
        println!("{}", 0);
    }

    // +n*n技巧 3
    for i in 0..(2 * n) {
        for j in 0..(n + 1) {
            println!("{}", 0);
        }
    }
}
```

=== "C"

```c title=""
void algorithm(int n) {
    int a = 1;  // +0技巧 1
    a = a + n;  // +0技巧 1
    // +n技巧 2
    for (int i = 0; i < 5 * n + 1; i++) {
        printf("%d", 0);
    }
    // +n*n技巧 3
    for (int i = 0; i < 2 * n; i++) {
        for (int j = 0; j < n + 1; j++) {
            printf("%d", 0);
        }
    }
}
```

=== "Kotlin"

```kotlin title=""
fun algorithm(n: Int) {
    var a = 1   // +0技巧 1
    a = a + n   // +0技巧 1
    // +n技巧 2
    for (i in 0..<5 * n + 1) {
        println(0)
    }
    // +n*n技巧 3
    for (i in 0..<2 * n) {
        for (j in 0..<n + 1) {
            println(0)
        }
    }
}
```

=== "Ruby"

```ruby title=""
def algorithm(n)
    a = 1       # +0技巧 1
    a = a + n   # +0技巧 1
    # +n技巧 2
    (0...(5 * n + 1)).each do { puts 0 }
    # +n*n技巧 3
    (0...(2 * n)).each do
        (0...(n + 1)).each do { puts 0 }
    end
end
```

=== "Zig"

```zig title=""
fn algorithm(n: usize) void {
    var a: i32 = 1;     // +0技巧 1
    a = a + @as(i32, @intCast(n));        // +0技巧 1

    // +n技巧 2
    for(0..(5 * n + 1)) |_| {
        std.debug.print("{}\n", .{0}); 
    }

    // +n*n技巧 3
    for(0..(2 * n)) |_| {
        for(0..(n + 1)) |_| {
            std.debug.print("{}\n", .{0}); 
        }
    }
}
```

以下公式展示了使用上述技巧前後的統計結果,兩者推算出的時間複雜度都為 O(n^2)


\begin{aligned}
T(n) & = 2n(n + 1) + (5n + 1) + 2 & \text{完整統計 (-.-|||)} \newline
& = 2n^2 + 7n + 3 \newline
T(n) & = n^2 + n & \text{偷懶統計 (o.O)}
\end{aligned}

2.   第二步:判斷漸近上界

時間複雜度由 T(n) 中最高階的項來決定。這是因為在 n 趨於無窮大時,最高階的項將發揮主導作用,其他項的影響都可以忽略。

表 2-2 展示了一些例子,其中一些誇張的值是為了強調“係數無法撼動階數”這一結論。當 n 趨於無窮大時,這些常數變得無足輕重。

表 2-2   不同操作數量對應的時間複雜度

操作數量 T(n) 時間複雜度 O(f(n))
100000 O(1)
3n + 2 O(n)
2n^2 + 3n + 2 O(n^2)
n^3 + 10000n^2 O(n^3)
2^n + 10000n^{10000} O(2^n)

2.3.4   常見型別

設輸入資料大小為 n ,常見的時間複雜度型別如圖 2-9 所示(按照從低到高的順序排列)。


\begin{aligned}
O(1) < O(\log n) < O(n) < O(n \log n) < O(n^2) < O(2^n) < O(n!) \newline
\text{常數階} < \text{對數階} < \text{線性階} < \text{線性對數階} < \text{平方階} < \text{指數階} < \text{階乘階}
\end{aligned}

常見的時間複雜度型別{ class="animation-figure" }

圖 2-9   常見的時間複雜度型別

1.   常數階 O(1)

常數階的操作數量與輸入資料大小 n 無關,即不隨著 n 的變化而變化。

在以下函式中,儘管操作數量 size 可能很大,但由於其與輸入資料大小 n 無關,因此時間複雜度仍為 O(1)

=== "Python"

```python title="time_complexity.py"
def constant(n: int) -> int:
    """常數階"""
    count = 0
    size = 100000
    for _ in range(size):
        count += 1
    return count
```

=== "C++"

```cpp title="time_complexity.cpp"
/* 常數階 */
int constant(int n) {
    int count = 0;
    int size = 100000;
    for (int i = 0; i < size; i++)
        count++;
    return count;
}
```

=== "Java"

```java title="time_complexity.java"
/* 常數階 */
int constant(int n) {
    int count = 0;
    int size = 100000;
    for (int i = 0; i < size; i++)
        count++;
    return count;
}
```

=== "C#"

```csharp title="time_complexity.cs"
/* 常數階 */
int Constant(int n) {
    int count = 0;
    int size = 100000;
    for (int i = 0; i < size; i++)
        count++;
    return count;
}
```

=== "Go"

```go title="time_complexity.go"
/* 常數階 */
func constant(n int) int {
    count := 0
    size := 100000
    for i := 0; i < size; i++ {
        count++
    }
    return count
}
```

=== "Swift"

```swift title="time_complexity.swift"
/* 常數階 */
func constant(n: Int) -> Int {
    var count = 0
    let size = 100_000
    for _ in 0 ..< size {
        count += 1
    }
    return count
}
```

=== "JS"

```javascript title="time_complexity.js"
/* 常數階 */
function constant(n) {
    let count = 0;
    const size = 100000;
    for (let i = 0; i < size; i++) count++;
    return count;
}
```

=== "TS"

```typescript title="time_complexity.ts"
/* 常數階 */
function constant(n: number): number {
    let count = 0;
    const size = 100000;
    for (let i = 0; i < size; i++) count++;
    return count;
}
```

=== "Dart"

```dart title="time_complexity.dart"
/* 常數階 */
int constant(int n) {
  int count = 0;
  int size = 100000;
  for (var i = 0; i < size; i++) {
    count++;
  }
  return count;
}
```

=== "Rust"

```rust title="time_complexity.rs"
/* 常數階 */
fn constant(n: i32) -> i32 {
    _ = n;
    let mut count = 0;
    let size = 100_000;
    for _ in 0..size {
        count += 1;
    }
    count
}
```

=== "C"

```c title="time_complexity.c"
/* 常數階 */
int constant(int n) {
    int count = 0;
    int size = 100000;
    int i = 0;
    for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) {
        count++;
    }
    return count;
}
```

=== "Kotlin"

```kotlin title="time_complexity.kt"
/* 常數階 */
fun constant(n: Int): Int {
    var count = 0
    val size = 10_0000
    for (i in 0..<size)
        count++
    return count
}
```

=== "Ruby"

```ruby title="time_complexity.rb"
### 常數階 ###
def constant(n)
  count = 0
  size = 100000

  (0...size).each { count += 1 }

  count
end
```

=== "Zig"

```zig title="time_complexity.zig"
// 常數階
fn constant(n: i32) i32 {
    _ = n;
    var count: i32 = 0;
    const size: i32 = 100_000;
    var i: i32 = 0;
    while(i<size) : (i += 1) {
        count += 1;
    }
    return count;
}
```

??? pythontutor "視覺化執行"

<div style="height: 459px; width: 100%;"><iframe class="pythontutor-iframe" src="https://pythontutor.com/iframe-embed.html#code=def%20constant%28n%3A%20int%29%20-%3E%20int%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E5%B8%B8%E6%95%B0%E9%98%B6%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%200%0A%20%20%20%20size%20%3D%2010%0A%20%20%20%20for%20_%20in%20range%28size%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20count%20%2B%3D%201%0A%20%20%20%20return%20count%0A%0A%22%22%22Driver%20Code%22%22%22%0Aif%20__name__%20%3D%3D%20%22__main__%22%3A%0A%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%208%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E8%BE%93%E5%85%A5%E6%95%B0%E6%8D%AE%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%20n%20%3D%22,%20n%29%0A%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%20constant%28n%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E5%B8%B8%E6%95%B0%E9%98%B6%E7%9A%84%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C%E6%95%B0%E9%87%8F%20%3D%22,%20count%29&codeDivHeight=472&codeDivWidth=350&cumulative=false&curInstr=3&heapPrimitives=nevernest&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=311&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false"> </iframe></div>
<div style="margin-top: 5px;"><a href="https://pythontutor.com/iframe-embed.html#code=def%20constant%28n%3A%20int%29%20-%3E%20int%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E5%B8%B8%E6%95%B0%E9%98%B6%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%200%0A%20%20%20%20size%20%3D%2010%0A%20%20%20%20for%20_%20in%20range%28size%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20count%20%2B%3D%201%0A%20%20%20%20return%20count%0A%0A%22%22%22Driver%20Code%22%22%22%0Aif%20__name__%20%3D%3D%20%22__main__%22%3A%0A%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%208%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E8%BE%93%E5%85%A5%E6%95%B0%E6%8D%AE%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%20n%20%3D%22,%20n%29%0A%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%20constant%28n%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E5%B8%B8%E6%95%B0%E9%98%B6%E7%9A%84%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C%E6%95%B0%E9%87%8F%20%3D%22,%20count%29&codeDivHeight=800&codeDivWidth=600&cumulative=false&curInstr=3&heapPrimitives=nevernest&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=311&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">全螢幕觀看 ></a></div>

2.   線性階 O(n)

線性階的操作數量相對於輸入資料大小 n 以線性級別增長。線性階通常出現在單層迴圈中:

=== "Python"

```python title="time_complexity.py"
def linear(n: int) -> int:
    """線性階"""
    count = 0
    for _ in range(n):
        count += 1
    return count
```

=== "C++"

```cpp title="time_complexity.cpp"
/* 線性階 */
int linear(int n) {
    int count = 0;
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++)
        count++;
    return count;
}
```

=== "Java"

```java title="time_complexity.java"
/* 線性階 */
int linear(int n) {
    int count = 0;
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++)
        count++;
    return count;
}
```

=== "C#"

```csharp title="time_complexity.cs"
/* 線性階 */
int Linear(int n) {
    int count = 0;
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++)
        count++;
    return count;
}
```

=== "Go"

```go title="time_complexity.go"
/* 線性階 */
func linear(n int) int {
    count := 0
    for i := 0; i < n; i++ {
        count++
    }
    return count
}
```

=== "Swift"

```swift title="time_complexity.swift"
/* 線性階 */
func linear(n: Int) -> Int {
    var count = 0
    for _ in 0 ..< n {
        count += 1
    }
    return count
}
```

=== "JS"

```javascript title="time_complexity.js"
/* 線性階 */
function linear(n) {
    let count = 0;
    for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) count++;
    return count;
}
```

=== "TS"

```typescript title="time_complexity.ts"
/* 線性階 */
function linear(n: number): number {
    let count = 0;
    for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) count++;
    return count;
}
```

=== "Dart"

```dart title="time_complexity.dart"
/* 線性階 */
int linear(int n) {
  int count = 0;
  for (var i = 0; i < n; i++) {
    count++;
  }
  return count;
}
```

=== "Rust"

```rust title="time_complexity.rs"
/* 線性階 */
fn linear(n: i32) -> i32 {
    let mut count = 0;
    for _ in 0..n {
        count += 1;
    }
    count
}
```

=== "C"

```c title="time_complexity.c"
/* 線性階 */
int linear(int n) {
    int count = 0;
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        count++;
    }
    return count;
}
```

=== "Kotlin"

```kotlin title="time_complexity.kt"
/* 線性階 */
fun linear(n: Int): Int {
    var count = 0
    // 迴圈次數與陣列長度成正比
    for (i in 0..<n)
        count++
    return count
}
```

=== "Ruby"

```ruby title="time_complexity.rb"
### 線性階 ###
def linear(n)
  count = 0
  (0...n).each { count += 1 }
  count
end
```

=== "Zig"

```zig title="time_complexity.zig"
// 線性階
fn linear(n: i32) i32 {
    var count: i32 = 0;
    var i: i32 = 0;
    while (i < n) : (i += 1) {
        count += 1;
    }
    return count;
}
```

??? pythontutor "視覺化執行"

<div style="height: 441px; width: 100%;"><iframe class="pythontutor-iframe" src="https://pythontutor.com/iframe-embed.html#code=def%20linear%28n%29%20-%3E%20int%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E7%BA%BF%E6%80%A7%E9%98%B6%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%200%0A%20%20%20%20for%20_%20in%20range%28n%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20count%20%2B%3D%201%0A%20%20%20%20return%20count%0A%0A%22%22%22Driver%20Code%22%22%22%0Aif%20__name__%20%3D%3D%20%22__main__%22%3A%0A%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%208%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E8%BE%93%E5%85%A5%E6%95%B0%E6%8D%AE%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%20n%20%3D%22,%20n%29%0A%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%20linear%28n%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E7%BA%BF%E6%80%A7%E9%98%B6%E7%9A%84%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C%E6%95%B0%E9%87%8F%20%3D%22,%20count%29&codeDivHeight=472&codeDivWidth=350&cumulative=false&curInstr=3&heapPrimitives=nevernest&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=311&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false"> </iframe></div>
<div style="margin-top: 5px;"><a href="https://pythontutor.com/iframe-embed.html#code=def%20linear%28n%29%20-%3E%20int%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E7%BA%BF%E6%80%A7%E9%98%B6%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%200%0A%20%20%20%20for%20_%20in%20range%28n%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20count%20%2B%3D%201%0A%20%20%20%20return%20count%0A%0A%22%22%22Driver%20Code%22%22%22%0Aif%20__name__%20%3D%3D%20%22__main__%22%3A%0A%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%208%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E8%BE%93%E5%85%A5%E6%95%B0%E6%8D%AE%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%20n%20%3D%22,%20n%29%0A%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%20linear%28n%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E7%BA%BF%E6%80%A7%E9%98%B6%E7%9A%84%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C%E6%95%B0%E9%87%8F%20%3D%22,%20count%29&codeDivHeight=800&codeDivWidth=600&cumulative=false&curInstr=3&heapPrimitives=nevernest&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=311&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">全螢幕觀看 ></a></div>

走訪陣列和走訪鏈結串列等操作的時間複雜度均為 O(n) ,其中 n 為陣列或鏈結串列的長度:

=== "Python"

```python title="time_complexity.py"
def array_traversal(nums: list[int]) -> int:
    """線性階(走訪陣列)"""
    count = 0
    # 迴圈次數與陣列長度成正比
    for num in nums:
        count += 1
    return count
```

=== "C++"

```cpp title="time_complexity.cpp"
/* 線性階(走訪陣列) */
int arrayTraversal(vector<int> &nums) {
    int count = 0;
    // 迴圈次數與陣列長度成正比
    for (int num : nums) {
        count++;
    }
    return count;
}
```

=== "Java"

```java title="time_complexity.java"
/* 線性階(走訪陣列) */
int arrayTraversal(int[] nums) {
    int count = 0;
    // 迴圈次數與陣列長度成正比
    for (int num : nums) {
        count++;
    }
    return count;
}
```

=== "C#"

```csharp title="time_complexity.cs"
/* 線性階(走訪陣列) */
int ArrayTraversal(int[] nums) {
    int count = 0;
    // 迴圈次數與陣列長度成正比
    foreach (int num in nums) {
        count++;
    }
    return count;
}
```

=== "Go"

```go title="time_complexity.go"
/* 線性階(走訪陣列) */
func arrayTraversal(nums []int) int {
    count := 0
    // 迴圈次數與陣列長度成正比
    for range nums {
        count++
    }
    return count
}
```

=== "Swift"

```swift title="time_complexity.swift"
/* 線性階(走訪陣列) */
func arrayTraversal(nums: [Int]) -> Int {
    var count = 0
    // 迴圈次數與陣列長度成正比
    for _ in nums {
        count += 1
    }
    return count
}
```

=== "JS"

```javascript title="time_complexity.js"
/* 線性階(走訪陣列) */
function arrayTraversal(nums) {
    let count = 0;
    // 迴圈次數與陣列長度成正比
    for (let i = 0; i < nums.length; i++) {
        count++;
    }
    return count;
}
```

=== "TS"

```typescript title="time_complexity.ts"
/* 線性階(走訪陣列) */
function arrayTraversal(nums: number[]): number {
    let count = 0;
    // 迴圈次數與陣列長度成正比
    for (let i = 0; i < nums.length; i++) {
        count++;
    }
    return count;
}
```

=== "Dart"

```dart title="time_complexity.dart"
/* 線性階(走訪陣列) */
int arrayTraversal(List<int> nums) {
  int count = 0;
  // 迴圈次數與陣列長度成正比
  for (var _num in nums) {
    count++;
  }
  return count;
}
```

=== "Rust"

```rust title="time_complexity.rs"
/* 線性階(走訪陣列) */
fn array_traversal(nums: &[i32]) -> i32 {
    let mut count = 0;
    // 迴圈次數與陣列長度成正比
    for _ in nums {
        count += 1;
    }
    count
}
```

=== "C"

```c title="time_complexity.c"
/* 線性階(走訪陣列) */
int arrayTraversal(int *nums, int n) {
    int count = 0;
    // 迴圈次數與陣列長度成正比
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        count++;
    }
    return count;
}
```

=== "Kotlin"

```kotlin title="time_complexity.kt"
/* 線性階(走訪陣列) */
fun arrayTraversal(nums: IntArray): Int {
    var count = 0
    // 迴圈次數與陣列長度成正比
    for (num in nums) {
        count++
    }
    return count
}
```

=== "Ruby"

```ruby title="time_complexity.rb"
### 線性階(走訪陣列)###
def array_traversal(nums)
  count = 0

  # 迴圈次數與陣列長度成正比
  for num in nums
    count += 1
  end

  count
end
```

=== "Zig"

```zig title="time_complexity.zig"
// 線性階(走訪陣列)
fn arrayTraversal(nums: []i32) i32 {
    var count: i32 = 0;
    // 迴圈次數與陣列長度成正比
    for (nums) |_| {
        count += 1;
    }
    return count;
}
```

??? pythontutor "視覺化執行"

<div style="height: 459px; width: 100%;"><iframe class="pythontutor-iframe" src="https://pythontutor.com/iframe-embed.html#code=def%20array_traversal%28nums%3A%20list%5Bint%5D%29%20-%3E%20int%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E7%BA%BF%E6%80%A7%E9%98%B6%EF%BC%88%E9%81%8D%E5%8E%86%E6%95%B0%E7%BB%84%EF%BC%89%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%200%0A%20%20%20%20%23%20%E5%BE%AA%E7%8E%AF%E6%AC%A1%E6%95%B0%E4%B8%8E%E6%95%B0%E7%BB%84%E9%95%BF%E5%BA%A6%E6%88%90%E6%AD%A3%E6%AF%94%0A%20%20%20%20for%20num%20in%20nums%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20count%20%2B%3D%201%0A%20%20%20%20return%20count%0A%0A%22%22%22Driver%20Code%22%22%22%0Aif%20__name__%20%3D%3D%20%22__main__%22%3A%0A%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%208%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E8%BE%93%E5%85%A5%E6%95%B0%E6%8D%AE%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%20n%20%3D%22,%20n%29%0A%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%20array_traversal%28%5B0%5D%20*%20n%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E7%BA%BF%E6%80%A7%E9%98%B6%EF%BC%88%E9%81%8D%E5%8E%86%E6%95%B0%E7%BB%84%EF%BC%89%E7%9A%84%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C%E6%95%B0%E9%87%8F%20%3D%22,%20count%29&codeDivHeight=472&codeDivWidth=350&cumulative=false&curInstr=3&heapPrimitives=nevernest&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=311&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false"> </iframe></div>
<div style="margin-top: 5px;"><a href="https://pythontutor.com/iframe-embed.html#code=def%20array_traversal%28nums%3A%20list%5Bint%5D%29%20-%3E%20int%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E7%BA%BF%E6%80%A7%E9%98%B6%EF%BC%88%E9%81%8D%E5%8E%86%E6%95%B0%E7%BB%84%EF%BC%89%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%200%0A%20%20%20%20%23%20%E5%BE%AA%E7%8E%AF%E6%AC%A1%E6%95%B0%E4%B8%8E%E6%95%B0%E7%BB%84%E9%95%BF%E5%BA%A6%E6%88%90%E6%AD%A3%E6%AF%94%0A%20%20%20%20for%20num%20in%20nums%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20count%20%2B%3D%201%0A%20%20%20%20return%20count%0A%0A%22%22%22Driver%20Code%22%22%22%0Aif%20__name__%20%3D%3D%20%22__main__%22%3A%0A%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%208%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E8%BE%93%E5%85%A5%E6%95%B0%E6%8D%AE%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%20n%20%3D%22,%20n%29%0A%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%20array_traversal%28%5B0%5D%20*%20n%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E7%BA%BF%E6%80%A7%E9%98%B6%EF%BC%88%E9%81%8D%E5%8E%86%E6%95%B0%E7%BB%84%EF%BC%89%E7%9A%84%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C%E6%95%B0%E9%87%8F%20%3D%22,%20count%29&codeDivHeight=800&codeDivWidth=600&cumulative=false&curInstr=3&heapPrimitives=nevernest&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=311&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">全螢幕觀看 ></a></div>

值得注意的是,輸入資料大小 n 需根據輸入資料的型別來具體確定。比如在第一個示例中,變數 n 為輸入資料大小;在第二個示例中,陣列長度 n 為資料大小。

3.   平方階 O(n^2)

平方階的操作數量相對於輸入資料大小 n 以平方級別增長。平方階通常出現在巢狀迴圈中,外層迴圈和內層迴圈的時間複雜度都為 O(n) ,因此總體的時間複雜度為 O(n^2)

=== "Python"

```python title="time_complexity.py"
def quadratic(n: int) -> int:
    """平方階"""
    count = 0
    # 迴圈次數與資料大小 n 成平方關係
    for i in range(n):
        for j in range(n):
            count += 1
    return count
```

=== "C++"

```cpp title="time_complexity.cpp"
/* 平方階 */
int quadratic(int n) {
    int count = 0;
    // 迴圈次數與資料大小 n 成平方關係
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        for (int j = 0; j < n; j++) {
            count++;
        }
    }
    return count;
}
```

=== "Java"

```java title="time_complexity.java"
/* 平方階 */
int quadratic(int n) {
    int count = 0;
    // 迴圈次數與資料大小 n 成平方關係
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        for (int j = 0; j < n; j++) {
            count++;
        }
    }
    return count;
}
```

=== "C#"

```csharp title="time_complexity.cs"
/* 平方階 */
int Quadratic(int n) {
    int count = 0;
    // 迴圈次數與資料大小 n 成平方關係
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        for (int j = 0; j < n; j++) {
            count++;
        }
    }
    return count;
}
```

=== "Go"

```go title="time_complexity.go"
/* 平方階 */
func quadratic(n int) int {
    count := 0
    // 迴圈次數與資料大小 n 成平方關係
    for i := 0; i < n; i++ {
        for j := 0; j < n; j++ {
            count++
        }
    }
    return count
}
```

=== "Swift"

```swift title="time_complexity.swift"
/* 平方階 */
func quadratic(n: Int) -> Int {
    var count = 0
    // 迴圈次數與資料大小 n 成平方關係
    for _ in 0 ..< n {
        for _ in 0 ..< n {
            count += 1
        }
    }
    return count
}
```

=== "JS"

```javascript title="time_complexity.js"
/* 平方階 */
function quadratic(n) {
    let count = 0;
    // 迴圈次數與資料大小 n 成平方關係
    for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        for (let j = 0; j < n; j++) {
            count++;
        }
    }
    return count;
}
```

=== "TS"

```typescript title="time_complexity.ts"
/* 平方階 */
function quadratic(n: number): number {
    let count = 0;
    // 迴圈次數與資料大小 n 成平方關係
    for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        for (let j = 0; j < n; j++) {
            count++;
        }
    }
    return count;
}
```

=== "Dart"

```dart title="time_complexity.dart"
/* 平方階 */
int quadratic(int n) {
  int count = 0;
  // 迴圈次數與資料大小 n 成平方關係
  for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
    for (int j = 0; j < n; j++) {
      count++;
    }
  }
  return count;
}
```

=== "Rust"

```rust title="time_complexity.rs"
/* 平方階 */
fn quadratic(n: i32) -> i32 {
    let mut count = 0;
    // 迴圈次數與資料大小 n 成平方關係
    for _ in 0..n {
        for _ in 0..n {
            count += 1;
        }
    }
    count
}
```

=== "C"

```c title="time_complexity.c"
/* 平方階 */
int quadratic(int n) {
    int count = 0;
    // 迴圈次數與資料大小 n 成平方關係
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        for (int j = 0; j < n; j++) {
            count++;
        }
    }
    return count;
}
```

=== "Kotlin"

```kotlin title="time_complexity.kt"
/* 平方階 */
fun quadratic(n: Int): Int {
    var count = 0
    // 迴圈次數與資料大小 n 成平方關係
    for (i in 0..<n) {
        for (j in 0..<n) {
            count++
        }
    }
    return count
}
```

=== "Ruby"

```ruby title="time_complexity.rb"
### 平方階 ###
def quadratic(n)
  count = 0

  # 迴圈次數與資料大小 n 成平方關係
  for i in 0...n
    for j in 0...n
      count += 1
    end
  end

  count
end
```

=== "Zig"

```zig title="time_complexity.zig"
// 平方階
fn quadratic(n: i32) i32 {
    var count: i32 = 0;
    var i: i32 = 0;
    // 迴圈次數與資料大小 n 成平方關係
    while (i < n) : (i += 1) {
        var j: i32 = 0;
        while (j < n) : (j += 1) {
            count += 1;
        }
    }
    return count;
}
```

??? pythontutor "視覺化執行"

<div style="height: 477px; width: 100%;"><iframe class="pythontutor-iframe" src="https://pythontutor.com/iframe-embed.html#code=def%20quadratic%28n%29%20-%3E%20int%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E5%B9%B3%E6%96%B9%E9%98%B6%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%200%0A%20%20%20%20%23%20%E5%BE%AA%E7%8E%AF%E6%AC%A1%E6%95%B0%E4%B8%8E%E6%95%B0%E6%8D%AE%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%20n%20%E6%88%90%E5%B9%B3%E6%96%B9%E5%85%B3%E7%B3%BB%0A%20%20%20%20for%20i%20in%20range%28n%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20for%20j%20in%20range%28n%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20count%20%2B%3D%201%0A%20%20%20%20return%20count%0A%0A%22%22%22Driver%20Code%22%22%22%0Aif%20__name__%20%3D%3D%20%22__main__%22%3A%0A%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%208%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E8%BE%93%E5%85%A5%E6%95%B0%E6%8D%AE%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%20n%20%3D%22,%20n%29%0A%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%20quadratic%28n%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E5%B9%B3%E6%96%B9%E9%98%B6%E7%9A%84%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C%E6%95%B0%E9%87%8F%20%3D%22,%20count%29&codeDivHeight=472&codeDivWidth=350&cumulative=false&curInstr=3&heapPrimitives=nevernest&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=311&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false"> </iframe></div>
<div style="margin-top: 5px;"><a href="https://pythontutor.com/iframe-embed.html#code=def%20quadratic%28n%29%20-%3E%20int%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E5%B9%B3%E6%96%B9%E9%98%B6%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%200%0A%20%20%20%20%23%20%E5%BE%AA%E7%8E%AF%E6%AC%A1%E6%95%B0%E4%B8%8E%E6%95%B0%E6%8D%AE%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%20n%20%E6%88%90%E5%B9%B3%E6%96%B9%E5%85%B3%E7%B3%BB%0A%20%20%20%20for%20i%20in%20range%28n%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20for%20j%20in%20range%28n%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20count%20%2B%3D%201%0A%20%20%20%20return%20count%0A%0A%22%22%22Driver%20Code%22%22%22%0Aif%20__name__%20%3D%3D%20%22__main__%22%3A%0A%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%208%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E8%BE%93%E5%85%A5%E6%95%B0%E6%8D%AE%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%20n%20%3D%22,%20n%29%0A%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%20quadratic%28n%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E5%B9%B3%E6%96%B9%E9%98%B6%E7%9A%84%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C%E6%95%B0%E9%87%8F%20%3D%22,%20count%29&codeDivHeight=800&codeDivWidth=600&cumulative=false&curInstr=3&heapPrimitives=nevernest&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=311&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">全螢幕觀看 ></a></div>

圖 2-10 對比了常數階、線性階和平方階三種時間複雜度。

常數階、線性階和平方階的時間複雜度{ class="animation-figure" }

圖 2-10   常數階、線性階和平方階的時間複雜度

以泡沫排序為例,外層迴圈執行 n - 1 次,內層迴圈執行 n-1n-2\dots21 次,平均為 n / 2 次,因此時間複雜度為 O((n - 1) n / 2) = O(n^2)

=== "Python"

```python title="time_complexity.py"
def bubble_sort(nums: list[int]) -> int:
    """平方階(泡沫排序)"""
    count = 0  # 計數器
    # 外迴圈:未排序區間為 [0, i]
    for i in range(len(nums) - 1, 0, -1):
        # 內迴圈:將未排序區間 [0, i] 中的最大元素交換至該區間的最右端
        for j in range(i):
            if nums[j] > nums[j + 1]:
                # 交換 nums[j] 與 nums[j + 1]
                tmp: int = nums[j]
                nums[j] = nums[j + 1]
                nums[j + 1] = tmp
                count += 3  # 元素交換包含 3 個單元操作
    return count
```

=== "C++"

```cpp title="time_complexity.cpp"
/* 平方階(泡沫排序) */
int bubbleSort(vector<int> &nums) {
    int count = 0; // 計數器
    // 外迴圈:未排序區間為 [0, i]
    for (int i = nums.size() - 1; i > 0; i--) {
        // 內迴圈:將未排序區間 [0, i] 中的最大元素交換至該區間的最右端
        for (int j = 0; j < i; j++) {
            if (nums[j] > nums[j + 1]) {
                // 交換 nums[j] 與 nums[j + 1]
                int tmp = nums[j];
                nums[j] = nums[j + 1];
                nums[j + 1] = tmp;
                count += 3; // 元素交換包含 3 個單元操作
            }
        }
    }
    return count;
}
```

=== "Java"

```java title="time_complexity.java"
/* 平方階(泡沫排序) */
int bubbleSort(int[] nums) {
    int count = 0; // 計數器
    // 外迴圈:未排序區間為 [0, i]
    for (int i = nums.length - 1; i > 0; i--) {
        // 內迴圈:將未排序區間 [0, i] 中的最大元素交換至該區間的最右端
        for (int j = 0; j < i; j++) {
            if (nums[j] > nums[j + 1]) {
                // 交換 nums[j] 與 nums[j + 1]
                int tmp = nums[j];
                nums[j] = nums[j + 1];
                nums[j + 1] = tmp;
                count += 3; // 元素交換包含 3 個單元操作
            }
        }
    }
    return count;
}
```

=== "C#"

```csharp title="time_complexity.cs"
/* 平方階(泡沫排序) */
int BubbleSort(int[] nums) {
    int count = 0;  // 計數器
    // 外迴圈:未排序區間為 [0, i]
    for (int i = nums.Length - 1; i > 0; i--) {
        // 內迴圈:將未排序區間 [0, i] 中的最大元素交換至該區間的最右端
        for (int j = 0; j < i; j++) {
            if (nums[j] > nums[j + 1]) {
                // 交換 nums[j] 與 nums[j + 1]
                (nums[j + 1], nums[j]) = (nums[j], nums[j + 1]);
                count += 3;  // 元素交換包含 3 個單元操作
            }
        }
    }
    return count;
}
```

=== "Go"

```go title="time_complexity.go"
/* 平方階(泡沫排序) */
func bubbleSort(nums []int) int {
    count := 0 // 計數器
    // 外迴圈:未排序區間為 [0, i]
    for i := len(nums) - 1; i > 0; i-- {
        // 內迴圈:將未排序區間 [0, i] 中的最大元素交換至該區間的最右端
        for j := 0; j < i; j++ {
            if nums[j] > nums[j+1] {
                // 交換 nums[j] 與 nums[j + 1]
                tmp := nums[j]
                nums[j] = nums[j+1]
                nums[j+1] = tmp
                count += 3 // 元素交換包含 3 個單元操作
            }
        }
    }
    return count
}
```

=== "Swift"

```swift title="time_complexity.swift"
/* 平方階(泡沫排序) */
func bubbleSort(nums: inout [Int]) -> Int {
    var count = 0 // 計數器
    // 外迴圈:未排序區間為 [0, i]
    for i in nums.indices.dropFirst().reversed() {
        // 內迴圈:將未排序區間 [0, i] 中的最大元素交換至該區間的最右端
        for j in 0 ..< i {
            if nums[j] > nums[j + 1] {
                // 交換 nums[j] 與 nums[j + 1]
                let tmp = nums[j]
                nums[j] = nums[j + 1]
                nums[j + 1] = tmp
                count += 3 // 元素交換包含 3 個單元操作
            }
        }
    }
    return count
}
```

=== "JS"

```javascript title="time_complexity.js"
/* 平方階(泡沫排序) */
function bubbleSort(nums) {
    let count = 0; // 計數器
    // 外迴圈:未排序區間為 [0, i]
    for (let i = nums.length - 1; i > 0; i--) {
        // 內迴圈:將未排序區間 [0, i] 中的最大元素交換至該區間的最右端
        for (let j = 0; j < i; j++) {
            if (nums[j] > nums[j + 1]) {
                // 交換 nums[j] 與 nums[j + 1]
                let tmp = nums[j];
                nums[j] = nums[j + 1];
                nums[j + 1] = tmp;
                count += 3; // 元素交換包含 3 個單元操作
            }
        }
    }
    return count;
}
```

=== "TS"

```typescript title="time_complexity.ts"
/* 平方階(泡沫排序) */
function bubbleSort(nums: number[]): number {
    let count = 0; // 計數器
    // 外迴圈:未排序區間為 [0, i]
    for (let i = nums.length - 1; i > 0; i--) {
        // 內迴圈:將未排序區間 [0, i] 中的最大元素交換至該區間的最右端
        for (let j = 0; j < i; j++) {
            if (nums[j] > nums[j + 1]) {
                // 交換 nums[j] 與 nums[j + 1]
                let tmp = nums[j];
                nums[j] = nums[j + 1];
                nums[j + 1] = tmp;
                count += 3; // 元素交換包含 3 個單元操作
            }
        }
    }
    return count;
}
```

=== "Dart"

```dart title="time_complexity.dart"
/* 平方階(泡沫排序) */
int bubbleSort(List<int> nums) {
  int count = 0; // 計數器
  // 外迴圈:未排序區間為 [0, i]
  for (var i = nums.length - 1; i > 0; i--) {
    // 內迴圈:將未排序區間 [0, i] 中的最大元素交換至該區間的最右端
    for (var j = 0; j < i; j++) {
      if (nums[j] > nums[j + 1]) {
        // 交換 nums[j] 與 nums[j + 1]
        int tmp = nums[j];
        nums[j] = nums[j + 1];
        nums[j + 1] = tmp;
        count += 3; // 元素交換包含 3 個單元操作
      }
    }
  }
  return count;
}
```

=== "Rust"

```rust title="time_complexity.rs"
/* 平方階(泡沫排序) */
fn bubble_sort(nums: &mut [i32]) -> i32 {
    let mut count = 0; // 計數器

    // 外迴圈:未排序區間為 [0, i]
    for i in (1..nums.len()).rev() {
        // 內迴圈:將未排序區間 [0, i] 中的最大元素交換至該區間的最右端
        for j in 0..i {
            if nums[j] > nums[j + 1] {
                // 交換 nums[j] 與 nums[j + 1]
                let tmp = nums[j];
                nums[j] = nums[j + 1];
                nums[j + 1] = tmp;
                count += 3; // 元素交換包含 3 個單元操作
            }
        }
    }
    count
}
```

=== "C"

```c title="time_complexity.c"
/* 平方階(泡沫排序) */
int bubbleSort(int *nums, int n) {
    int count = 0; // 計數器
    // 外迴圈:未排序區間為 [0, i]
    for (int i = n - 1; i > 0; i--) {
        // 內迴圈:將未排序區間 [0, i] 中的最大元素交換至該區間的最右端
        for (int j = 0; j < i; j++) {
            if (nums[j] > nums[j + 1]) {
                // 交換 nums[j] 與 nums[j + 1]
                int tmp = nums[j];
                nums[j] = nums[j + 1];
                nums[j + 1] = tmp;
                count += 3; // 元素交換包含 3 個單元操作
            }
        }
    }
    return count;
}
```

=== "Kotlin"

```kotlin title="time_complexity.kt"
/* 平方階(泡沫排序) */
fun bubbleSort(nums: IntArray): Int {
    var count = 0
    // 外迴圈:未排序區間為 [0, i]
    for (i in nums.size - 1 downTo 1) {
        // 內迴圈:將未排序區間 [0, i] 中的最大元素交換至該區間的最右端
        for (j in 0..<i) {
            if (nums[j] > nums[j + 1]) {
                // 交換 nums[j] 與 nums[j + 1]
                nums[j] = nums[j + 1].also { nums[j + 1] = nums[j] }
                count += 3 // 元素交換包含 3 個單元操作
            }
        }
    }
    return count
}
```

=== "Ruby"

```ruby title="time_complexity.rb"
### 平方階(泡沫排序)###
def bubble_sort(nums)
  count = 0  # 計數器

  # 外迴圈:未排序區間為 [0, i]
  for i in (nums.length - 1).downto(0)
    # 內迴圈:將未排序區間 [0, i] 中的最大元素交換至該區間的最右端
    for j in 0...i
      if nums[j] > nums[j + 1]
        # 交換 nums[j] 與 nums[j + 1]
        tmp = nums[j]
        nums[j] = nums[j + 1]
        nums[j + 1] = tmp
        count += 3 # 元素交換包含 3 個單元操作
      end
    end
  end

  count
end
```

=== "Zig"

```zig title="time_complexity.zig"
// 平方階(泡沫排序)
fn bubbleSort(nums: []i32) i32 {
    var count: i32 = 0;  // 計數器 
    // 外迴圈:未排序區間為 [0, i]
    var i: i32 = @as(i32, @intCast(nums.len)) - 1;
    while (i > 0) : (i -= 1) {
        var j: usize = 0;
        // 內迴圈:將未排序區間 [0, i] 中的最大元素交換至該區間的最右端
        while (j < i) : (j += 1) {
            if (nums[j] > nums[j + 1]) {
                // 交換 nums[j] 與 nums[j + 1]
                var tmp = nums[j];
                nums[j] = nums[j + 1];
                nums[j + 1] = tmp;
                count += 3;  // 元素交換包含 3 個單元操作
            }
        }
    }
    return count;
}
```

??? pythontutor "視覺化執行"

<div style="height: 549px; width: 100%;"><iframe class="pythontutor-iframe" src="https://pythontutor.com/iframe-embed.html#code=def%20bubble_sort%28nums%3A%20list%5Bint%5D%29%20-%3E%20int%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E5%B9%B3%E6%96%B9%E9%98%B6%EF%BC%88%E5%86%92%E6%B3%A1%E6%8E%92%E5%BA%8F%EF%BC%89%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%200%20%20%23%20%E8%AE%A1%E6%95%B0%E5%99%A8%0A%20%20%20%20%23%20%E5%A4%96%E5%BE%AA%E7%8E%AF%EF%BC%9A%E6%9C%AA%E6%8E%92%E5%BA%8F%E5%8C%BA%E9%97%B4%E4%B8%BA%20%5B0,%20i%5D%0A%20%20%20%20for%20i%20in%20range%28len%28nums%29%20-%201,%200,%20-1%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%23%20%E5%86%85%E5%BE%AA%E7%8E%AF%EF%BC%9A%E5%B0%86%E6%9C%AA%E6%8E%92%E5%BA%8F%E5%8C%BA%E9%97%B4%20%5B0,%20i%5D%20%E4%B8%AD%E7%9A%84%E6%9C%80%E5%A4%A7%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0%E4%BA%A4%E6%8D%A2%E8%87%B3%E8%AF%A5%E5%8C%BA%E9%97%B4%E7%9A%84%E6%9C%80%E5%8F%B3%E7%AB%AF%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20for%20j%20in%20range%28i%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20if%20nums%5Bj%5D%20%3E%20nums%5Bj%20%2B%201%5D%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%23%20%E4%BA%A4%E6%8D%A2%20nums%5Bj%5D%20%E4%B8%8E%20nums%5Bj%20%2B%201%5D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20tmp%20%3D%20nums%5Bj%5D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20nums%5Bj%5D%20%3D%20nums%5Bj%20%2B%201%5D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20nums%5Bj%20%2B%201%5D%20%3D%20tmp%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20count%20%2B%3D%203%20%20%23%20%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0%E4%BA%A4%E6%8D%A2%E5%8C%85%E5%90%AB%203%20%E4%B8%AA%E5%8D%95%E5%85%83%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C%0A%20%20%20%20return%20count%0A%0A%22%22%22Driver%20Code%22%22%22%0Aif%20__name__%20%3D%3D%20%22__main__%22%3A%0A%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%208%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E8%BE%93%E5%85%A5%E6%95%B0%E6%8D%AE%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%20n%20%3D%22,%20n%29%0A%0A%20%20%20%20nums%20%3D%20%5Bi%20for%20i%20in%20range%28n,%200,%20-1%29%5D%20%20%23%20%5Bn,%20n-1,%20...,%202,%201%5D%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%20bubble_sort%28nums%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E5%B9%B3%E6%96%B9%E9%98%B6%EF%BC%88%E5%86%92%E6%B3%A1%E6%8E%92%E5%BA%8F%EF%BC%89%E7%9A%84%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C%E6%95%B0%E9%87%8F%20%3D%22,%20count%29&codeDivHeight=472&codeDivWidth=350&cumulative=false&curInstr=3&heapPrimitives=nevernest&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=311&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false"> </iframe></div>
<div style="margin-top: 5px;"><a href="https://pythontutor.com/iframe-embed.html#code=def%20bubble_sort%28nums%3A%20list%5Bint%5D%29%20-%3E%20int%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E5%B9%B3%E6%96%B9%E9%98%B6%EF%BC%88%E5%86%92%E6%B3%A1%E6%8E%92%E5%BA%8F%EF%BC%89%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%200%20%20%23%20%E8%AE%A1%E6%95%B0%E5%99%A8%0A%20%20%20%20%23%20%E5%A4%96%E5%BE%AA%E7%8E%AF%EF%BC%9A%E6%9C%AA%E6%8E%92%E5%BA%8F%E5%8C%BA%E9%97%B4%E4%B8%BA%20%5B0,%20i%5D%0A%20%20%20%20for%20i%20in%20range%28len%28nums%29%20-%201,%200,%20-1%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%23%20%E5%86%85%E5%BE%AA%E7%8E%AF%EF%BC%9A%E5%B0%86%E6%9C%AA%E6%8E%92%E5%BA%8F%E5%8C%BA%E9%97%B4%20%5B0,%20i%5D%20%E4%B8%AD%E7%9A%84%E6%9C%80%E5%A4%A7%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0%E4%BA%A4%E6%8D%A2%E8%87%B3%E8%AF%A5%E5%8C%BA%E9%97%B4%E7%9A%84%E6%9C%80%E5%8F%B3%E7%AB%AF%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20for%20j%20in%20range%28i%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20if%20nums%5Bj%5D%20%3E%20nums%5Bj%20%2B%201%5D%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%23%20%E4%BA%A4%E6%8D%A2%20nums%5Bj%5D%20%E4%B8%8E%20nums%5Bj%20%2B%201%5D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20tmp%20%3D%20nums%5Bj%5D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20nums%5Bj%5D%20%3D%20nums%5Bj%20%2B%201%5D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20nums%5Bj%20%2B%201%5D%20%3D%20tmp%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20count%20%2B%3D%203%20%20%23%20%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0%E4%BA%A4%E6%8D%A2%E5%8C%85%E5%90%AB%203%20%E4%B8%AA%E5%8D%95%E5%85%83%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C%0A%20%20%20%20return%20count%0A%0A%22%22%22Driver%20Code%22%22%22%0Aif%20__name__%20%3D%3D%20%22__main__%22%3A%0A%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%208%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E8%BE%93%E5%85%A5%E6%95%B0%E6%8D%AE%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%20n%20%3D%22,%20n%29%0A%0A%20%20%20%20nums%20%3D%20%5Bi%20for%20i%20in%20range%28n,%200,%20-1%29%5D%20%20%23%20%5Bn,%20n-1,%20...,%202,%201%5D%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%20bubble_sort%28nums%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E5%B9%B3%E6%96%B9%E9%98%B6%EF%BC%88%E5%86%92%E6%B3%A1%E6%8E%92%E5%BA%8F%EF%BC%89%E7%9A%84%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C%E6%95%B0%E9%87%8F%20%3D%22,%20count%29&codeDivHeight=800&codeDivWidth=600&cumulative=false&curInstr=3&heapPrimitives=nevernest&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=311&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">全螢幕觀看 ></a></div>

4.   指數階 O(2^n)

生物學的“細胞分裂”是指數階增長的典型例子:初始狀態為 1 個細胞,分裂一輪後變為 2 個,分裂兩輪後變為 4 個,以此類推,分裂 n 輪後有 2^n 個細胞。

圖 2-11 和以下程式碼模擬了細胞分裂的過程,時間複雜度為 O(2^n)

=== "Python"

```python title="time_complexity.py"
def exponential(n: int) -> int:
    """指數階(迴圈實現)"""
    count = 0
    base = 1
    # 細胞每輪一分為二,形成數列 1, 2, 4, 8, ..., 2^(n-1)
    for _ in range(n):
        for _ in range(base):
            count += 1
        base *= 2
    # count = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + .. + 2^(n-1) = 2^n - 1
    return count
```

=== "C++"

```cpp title="time_complexity.cpp"
/* 指數階(迴圈實現) */
int exponential(int n) {
    int count = 0, base = 1;
    // 細胞每輪一分為二,形成數列 1, 2, 4, 8, ..., 2^(n-1)
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        for (int j = 0; j < base; j++) {
            count++;
        }
        base *= 2;
    }
    // count = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + .. + 2^(n-1) = 2^n - 1
    return count;
}
```

=== "Java"

```java title="time_complexity.java"
/* 指數階(迴圈實現) */
int exponential(int n) {
    int count = 0, base = 1;
    // 細胞每輪一分為二,形成數列 1, 2, 4, 8, ..., 2^(n-1)
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        for (int j = 0; j < base; j++) {
            count++;
        }
        base *= 2;
    }
    // count = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + .. + 2^(n-1) = 2^n - 1
    return count;
}
```

=== "C#"

```csharp title="time_complexity.cs"
/* 指數階(迴圈實現) */
int Exponential(int n) {
    int count = 0, bas = 1;
    // 細胞每輪一分為二,形成數列 1, 2, 4, 8, ..., 2^(n-1)
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        for (int j = 0; j < bas; j++) {
            count++;
        }
        bas *= 2;
    }
    // count = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + .. + 2^(n-1) = 2^n - 1
    return count;
}
```

=== "Go"

```go title="time_complexity.go"
/* 指數階(迴圈實現)*/
func exponential(n int) int {
    count, base := 0, 1
    // 細胞每輪一分為二,形成數列 1, 2, 4, 8, ..., 2^(n-1)
    for i := 0; i < n; i++ {
        for j := 0; j < base; j++ {
            count++
        }
        base *= 2
    }
    // count = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + .. + 2^(n-1) = 2^n - 1
    return count
}
```

=== "Swift"

```swift title="time_complexity.swift"
/* 指數階(迴圈實現) */
func exponential(n: Int) -> Int {
    var count = 0
    var base = 1
    // 細胞每輪一分為二,形成數列 1, 2, 4, 8, ..., 2^(n-1)
    for _ in 0 ..< n {
        for _ in 0 ..< base {
            count += 1
        }
        base *= 2
    }
    // count = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + .. + 2^(n-1) = 2^n - 1
    return count
}
```

=== "JS"

```javascript title="time_complexity.js"
/* 指數階(迴圈實現) */
function exponential(n) {
    let count = 0,
        base = 1;
    // 細胞每輪一分為二,形成數列 1, 2, 4, 8, ..., 2^(n-1)
    for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        for (let j = 0; j < base; j++) {
            count++;
        }
        base *= 2;
    }
    // count = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + .. + 2^(n-1) = 2^n - 1
    return count;
}
```

=== "TS"

```typescript title="time_complexity.ts"
/* 指數階(迴圈實現) */
function exponential(n: number): number {
    let count = 0,
        base = 1;
    // 細胞每輪一分為二,形成數列 1, 2, 4, 8, ..., 2^(n-1)
    for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        for (let j = 0; j < base; j++) {
            count++;
        }
        base *= 2;
    }
    // count = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + .. + 2^(n-1) = 2^n - 1
    return count;
}
```

=== "Dart"

```dart title="time_complexity.dart"
/* 指數階(迴圈實現) */
int exponential(int n) {
  int count = 0, base = 1;
  // 細胞每輪一分為二,形成數列 1, 2, 4, 8, ..., 2^(n-1)
  for (var i = 0; i < n; i++) {
    for (var j = 0; j < base; j++) {
      count++;
    }
    base *= 2;
  }
  // count = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + .. + 2^(n-1) = 2^n - 1
  return count;
}
```

=== "Rust"

```rust title="time_complexity.rs"
/* 指數階(迴圈實現) */
fn exponential(n: i32) -> i32 {
    let mut count = 0;
    let mut base = 1;
    // 細胞每輪一分為二,形成數列 1, 2, 4, 8, ..., 2^(n-1)
    for _ in 0..n {
        for _ in 0..base {
            count += 1
        }
        base *= 2;
    }
    // count = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + .. + 2^(n-1) = 2^n - 1
    count
}
```

=== "C"

```c title="time_complexity.c"
/* 指數階(迴圈實現) */
int exponential(int n) {
    int count = 0;
    int bas = 1;
    // 細胞每輪一分為二,形成數列 1, 2, 4, 8, ..., 2^(n-1)
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        for (int j = 0; j < bas; j++) {
            count++;
        }
        bas *= 2;
    }
    // count = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + .. + 2^(n-1) = 2^n - 1
    return count;
}
```

=== "Kotlin"

```kotlin title="time_complexity.kt"
/* 指數階(迴圈實現) */
fun exponential(n: Int): Int {
    var count = 0
    // 細胞每輪一分為二,形成數列 1, 2, 4, 8, ..., 2^(n-1)
    var base = 1
    for (i in 0..<n) {
        for (j in 0..<base) {
            count++
        }
        base *= 2
    }
    // count = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + .. + 2^(n-1) = 2^n - 1
    return count
}
```

=== "Ruby"

```ruby title="time_complexity.rb"
### 指數階(迴圈實現)###
def exponential(n)
  count, base = 0, 1

  # 細胞每輪一分為二,形成數列 1, 2, 4, 8, ..., 2^(n-1)
  (0...n).each do
    (0...base).each { count += 1 }
    base *= 2
  end

  # count = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + .. + 2^(n-1) = 2^n - 1
  count
end
```

=== "Zig"

```zig title="time_complexity.zig"
// 指數階(迴圈實現)
fn exponential(n: i32) i32 {
    var count: i32 = 0;
    var bas: i32 = 1;
    var i: i32 = 0;
    // 細胞每輪一分為二,形成數列 1, 2, 4, 8, ..., 2^(n-1)
    while (i < n) : (i += 1) {
        var j: i32 = 0;
        while (j < bas) : (j += 1) {
            count += 1;
        }
        bas *= 2;
    }
    // count = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + .. + 2^(n-1) = 2^n - 1
    return count;
}
```

??? pythontutor "視覺化執行"

<div style="height: 531px; width: 100%;"><iframe class="pythontutor-iframe" src="https://pythontutor.com/iframe-embed.html#code=def%20exponential%28n%29%20-%3E%20int%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E6%8C%87%E6%95%B0%E9%98%B6%EF%BC%88%E5%BE%AA%E7%8E%AF%E5%AE%9E%E7%8E%B0%EF%BC%89%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%200%0A%20%20%20%20base%20%3D%201%0A%20%20%20%20%23%20%E7%BB%86%E8%83%9E%E6%AF%8F%E8%BD%AE%E4%B8%80%E5%88%86%E4%B8%BA%E4%BA%8C%EF%BC%8C%E5%BD%A2%E6%88%90%E6%95%B0%E5%88%97%201,%202,%204,%208,%20...,%202%5E%28n-1%29%0A%20%20%20%20for%20_%20in%20range%28n%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20for%20_%20in%20range%28base%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20count%20%2B%3D%201%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20base%20*%3D%202%0A%20%20%20%20%23%20count%20%3D%201%20%2B%202%20%2B%204%20%2B%208%20%2B%20..%20%2B%202%5E%28n-1%29%20%3D%202%5En%20-%201%0A%20%20%20%20return%20count%0A%0A%22%22%22Driver%20Code%22%22%22%0Aif%20__name__%20%3D%3D%20%22__main__%22%3A%0A%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%208%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E8%BE%93%E5%85%A5%E6%95%B0%E6%8D%AE%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%20n%20%3D%22,%20n%29%0A%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%20exponential%28n%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E6%8C%87%E6%95%B0%E9%98%B6%EF%BC%88%E5%BE%AA%E7%8E%AF%E5%AE%9E%E7%8E%B0%EF%BC%89%E7%9A%84%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C%E6%95%B0%E9%87%8F%20%3D%22,%20count%29&codeDivHeight=472&codeDivWidth=350&cumulative=false&curInstr=3&heapPrimitives=nevernest&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=311&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false"> </iframe></div>
<div style="margin-top: 5px;"><a href="https://pythontutor.com/iframe-embed.html#code=def%20exponential%28n%29%20-%3E%20int%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E6%8C%87%E6%95%B0%E9%98%B6%EF%BC%88%E5%BE%AA%E7%8E%AF%E5%AE%9E%E7%8E%B0%EF%BC%89%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%200%0A%20%20%20%20base%20%3D%201%0A%20%20%20%20%23%20%E7%BB%86%E8%83%9E%E6%AF%8F%E8%BD%AE%E4%B8%80%E5%88%86%E4%B8%BA%E4%BA%8C%EF%BC%8C%E5%BD%A2%E6%88%90%E6%95%B0%E5%88%97%201,%202,%204,%208,%20...,%202%5E%28n-1%29%0A%20%20%20%20for%20_%20in%20range%28n%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20for%20_%20in%20range%28base%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20count%20%2B%3D%201%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20base%20*%3D%202%0A%20%20%20%20%23%20count%20%3D%201%20%2B%202%20%2B%204%20%2B%208%20%2B%20..%20%2B%202%5E%28n-1%29%20%3D%202%5En%20-%201%0A%20%20%20%20return%20count%0A%0A%22%22%22Driver%20Code%22%22%22%0Aif%20__name__%20%3D%3D%20%22__main__%22%3A%0A%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%208%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E8%BE%93%E5%85%A5%E6%95%B0%E6%8D%AE%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%20n%20%3D%22,%20n%29%0A%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%20exponential%28n%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E6%8C%87%E6%95%B0%E9%98%B6%EF%BC%88%E5%BE%AA%E7%8E%AF%E5%AE%9E%E7%8E%B0%EF%BC%89%E7%9A%84%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C%E6%95%B0%E9%87%8F%20%3D%22,%20count%29&codeDivHeight=800&codeDivWidth=600&cumulative=false&curInstr=3&heapPrimitives=nevernest&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=311&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">全螢幕觀看 ></a></div>

指數階的時間複雜度{ class="animation-figure" }

圖 2-11   指數階的時間複雜度

在實際演算法中,指數階常出現於遞迴函式中。例如在以下程式碼中,其遞迴地一分為二,經過 n 次分裂後停止:

=== "Python"

```python title="time_complexity.py"
def exp_recur(n: int) -> int:
    """指數階(遞迴實現)"""
    if n == 1:
        return 1
    return exp_recur(n - 1) + exp_recur(n - 1) + 1
```

=== "C++"

```cpp title="time_complexity.cpp"
/* 指數階(遞迴實現) */
int expRecur(int n) {
    if (n == 1)
        return 1;
    return expRecur(n - 1) + expRecur(n - 1) + 1;
}
```

=== "Java"

```java title="time_complexity.java"
/* 指數階(遞迴實現) */
int expRecur(int n) {
    if (n == 1)
        return 1;
    return expRecur(n - 1) + expRecur(n - 1) + 1;
}
```

=== "C#"

```csharp title="time_complexity.cs"
/* 指數階(遞迴實現) */
int ExpRecur(int n) {
    if (n == 1) return 1;
    return ExpRecur(n - 1) + ExpRecur(n - 1) + 1;
}
```

=== "Go"

```go title="time_complexity.go"
/* 指數階(遞迴實現)*/
func expRecur(n int) int {
    if n == 1 {
        return 1
    }
    return expRecur(n-1) + expRecur(n-1) + 1
}
```

=== "Swift"

```swift title="time_complexity.swift"
/* 指數階(遞迴實現) */
func expRecur(n: Int) -> Int {
    if n == 1 {
        return 1
    }
    return expRecur(n: n - 1) + expRecur(n: n - 1) + 1
}
```

=== "JS"

```javascript title="time_complexity.js"
/* 指數階(遞迴實現) */
function expRecur(n) {
    if (n === 1) return 1;
    return expRecur(n - 1) + expRecur(n - 1) + 1;
}
```

=== "TS"

```typescript title="time_complexity.ts"
/* 指數階(遞迴實現) */
function expRecur(n: number): number {
    if (n === 1) return 1;
    return expRecur(n - 1) + expRecur(n - 1) + 1;
}
```

=== "Dart"

```dart title="time_complexity.dart"
/* 指數階(遞迴實現) */
int expRecur(int n) {
  if (n == 1) return 1;
  return expRecur(n - 1) + expRecur(n - 1) + 1;
}
```

=== "Rust"

```rust title="time_complexity.rs"
/* 指數階(遞迴實現) */
fn exp_recur(n: i32) -> i32 {
    if n == 1 {
        return 1;
    }
    exp_recur(n - 1) + exp_recur(n - 1) + 1
}
```

=== "C"

```c title="time_complexity.c"
/* 指數階(遞迴實現) */
int expRecur(int n) {
    if (n == 1)
        return 1;
    return expRecur(n - 1) + expRecur(n - 1) + 1;
}
```

=== "Kotlin"

```kotlin title="time_complexity.kt"
/* 指數階(遞迴實現) */
fun expRecur(n: Int): Int {
    if (n == 1) {
        return 1
    }
    return expRecur(n - 1) + expRecur(n - 1) + 1
}
```

=== "Ruby"

```ruby title="time_complexity.rb"
### 指數階(遞迴實現)###
def exp_recur(n)
  return 1 if n == 1
  exp_recur(n - 1) + exp_recur(n - 1) + 1
end
```

=== "Zig"

```zig title="time_complexity.zig"
// 指數階(遞迴實現)
fn expRecur(n: i32) i32 {
    if (n == 1) return 1;
    return expRecur(n - 1) + expRecur(n - 1) + 1;
}
```

??? pythontutor "視覺化執行"

<div style="height: 423px; width: 100%;"><iframe class="pythontutor-iframe" src="https://pythontutor.com/iframe-embed.html#code=def%20exp_recur%28n%29%20-%3E%20int%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E6%8C%87%E6%95%B0%E9%98%B6%EF%BC%88%E9%80%92%E5%BD%92%E5%AE%9E%E7%8E%B0%EF%BC%89%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20if%20n%20%3D%3D%201%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20return%201%0A%20%20%20%20return%20exp_recur%28n%20-%201%29%20%2B%20exp_recur%28n%20-%201%29%20%2B%201%0A%0A%22%22%22Driver%20Code%22%22%22%0Aif%20__name__%20%3D%3D%20%22__main__%22%3A%0A%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%207%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E8%BE%93%E5%85%A5%E6%95%B0%E6%8D%AE%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%20n%20%3D%22,%20n%29%0A%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%20exp_recur%28n%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E6%8C%87%E6%95%B0%E9%98%B6%EF%BC%88%E9%80%92%E5%BD%92%E5%AE%9E%E7%8E%B0%EF%BC%89%E7%9A%84%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C%E6%95%B0%E9%87%8F%20%3D%22,%20count%29&codeDivHeight=472&codeDivWidth=350&cumulative=false&curInstr=3&heapPrimitives=nevernest&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=311&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false"> </iframe></div>
<div style="margin-top: 5px;"><a href="https://pythontutor.com/iframe-embed.html#code=def%20exp_recur%28n%29%20-%3E%20int%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E6%8C%87%E6%95%B0%E9%98%B6%EF%BC%88%E9%80%92%E5%BD%92%E5%AE%9E%E7%8E%B0%EF%BC%89%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20if%20n%20%3D%3D%201%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20return%201%0A%20%20%20%20return%20exp_recur%28n%20-%201%29%20%2B%20exp_recur%28n%20-%201%29%20%2B%201%0A%0A%22%22%22Driver%20Code%22%22%22%0Aif%20__name__%20%3D%3D%20%22__main__%22%3A%0A%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%207%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E8%BE%93%E5%85%A5%E6%95%B0%E6%8D%AE%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%20n%20%3D%22,%20n%29%0A%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%20exp_recur%28n%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E6%8C%87%E6%95%B0%E9%98%B6%EF%BC%88%E9%80%92%E5%BD%92%E5%AE%9E%E7%8E%B0%EF%BC%89%E7%9A%84%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C%E6%95%B0%E9%87%8F%20%3D%22,%20count%29&codeDivHeight=800&codeDivWidth=600&cumulative=false&curInstr=3&heapPrimitives=nevernest&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=311&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">全螢幕觀看 ></a></div>

指數階增長非常迅速,在窮舉法(暴力搜尋、回溯等)中比較常見。對於資料規模較大的問題,指數階是不可接受的,通常需要使用動態規劃或貪婪演算法等來解決。

5.   對數階 O(\log n)

與指數階相反,對數階反映了“每輪縮減到一半”的情況。設輸入資料大小為 n ,由於每輪縮減到一半,因此迴圈次數是 \log_2 n ,即 2^n 的反函式。

圖 2-12 和以下程式碼模擬了“每輪縮減到一半”的過程,時間複雜度為 O(\log_2 n) ,簡記為 O(\log n)

=== "Python"

```python title="time_complexity.py"
def logarithmic(n: int) -> int:
    """對數階(迴圈實現)"""
    count = 0
    while n > 1:
        n = n / 2
        count += 1
    return count
```

=== "C++"

```cpp title="time_complexity.cpp"
/* 對數階(迴圈實現) */
int logarithmic(int n) {
    int count = 0;
    while (n > 1) {
        n = n / 2;
        count++;
    }
    return count;
}
```

=== "Java"

```java title="time_complexity.java"
/* 對數階(迴圈實現) */
int logarithmic(int n) {
    int count = 0;
    while (n > 1) {
        n = n / 2;
        count++;
    }
    return count;
}
```

=== "C#"

```csharp title="time_complexity.cs"
/* 對數階(迴圈實現) */
int Logarithmic(int n) {
    int count = 0;
    while (n > 1) {
        n /= 2;
        count++;
    }
    return count;
}
```

=== "Go"

```go title="time_complexity.go"
/* 對數階(迴圈實現)*/
func logarithmic(n int) int {
    count := 0
    for n > 1 {
        n = n / 2
        count++
    }
    return count
}
```

=== "Swift"

```swift title="time_complexity.swift"
/* 對數階(迴圈實現) */
func logarithmic(n: Int) -> Int {
    var count = 0
    var n = n
    while n > 1 {
        n = n / 2
        count += 1
    }
    return count
}
```

=== "JS"

```javascript title="time_complexity.js"
/* 對數階(迴圈實現) */
function logarithmic(n) {
    let count = 0;
    while (n > 1) {
        n = n / 2;
        count++;
    }
    return count;
}
```

=== "TS"

```typescript title="time_complexity.ts"
/* 對數階(迴圈實現) */
function logarithmic(n: number): number {
    let count = 0;
    while (n > 1) {
        n = n / 2;
        count++;
    }
    return count;
}
```

=== "Dart"

```dart title="time_complexity.dart"
/* 對數階(迴圈實現) */
int logarithmic(int n) {
  int count = 0;
  while (n > 1) {
    n = n ~/ 2;
    count++;
  }
  return count;
}
```

=== "Rust"

```rust title="time_complexity.rs"
/* 對數階(迴圈實現) */
fn logarithmic(mut n: i32) -> i32 {
    let mut count = 0;
    while n > 1 {
        n = n / 2;
        count += 1;
    }
    count
}
```

=== "C"

```c title="time_complexity.c"
/* 對數階(迴圈實現) */
int logarithmic(int n) {
    int count = 0;
    while (n > 1) {
        n = n / 2;
        count++;
    }
    return count;
}
```

=== "Kotlin"

```kotlin title="time_complexity.kt"
/* 對數階(迴圈實現) */
fun logarithmic(n: Int): Int {
    var n1 = n
    var count = 0
    while (n1 > 1) {
        n1 /= 2
        count++
    }
    return count
}
```

=== "Ruby"

```ruby title="time_complexity.rb"
### 對數階(迴圈實現)###
def logarithmic(n)
  count = 0

  while n > 1
    n /= 2
    count += 1
  end

  count
end
```

=== "Zig"

```zig title="time_complexity.zig"
// 對數階(迴圈實現)
fn logarithmic(n: i32) i32 {
    var count: i32 = 0;
    var n_var = n;
    while (n_var > 1)
    {
        n_var = n_var / 2;
        count +=1;
    }
    return count;
}
```

??? pythontutor "視覺化執行"

<div style="height: 459px; width: 100%;"><iframe class="pythontutor-iframe" src="https://pythontutor.com/iframe-embed.html#code=def%20logarithmic%28n%3A%20int%29%20-%3E%20int%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E5%AF%B9%E6%95%B0%E9%98%B6%EF%BC%88%E5%BE%AA%E7%8E%AF%E5%AE%9E%E7%8E%B0%EF%BC%89%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%200%0A%20%20%20%20while%20n%20%3E%201%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%20n%20/%202%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20count%20%2B%3D%201%0A%20%20%20%20return%20count%0A%0A%22%22%22Driver%20Code%22%22%22%0Aif%20__name__%20%3D%3D%20%22__main__%22%3A%0A%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%208%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E8%BE%93%E5%85%A5%E6%95%B0%E6%8D%AE%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%20n%20%3D%22,%20n%29%0A%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%20logarithmic%28n%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E5%AF%B9%E6%95%B0%E9%98%B6%EF%BC%88%E5%BE%AA%E7%8E%AF%E5%AE%9E%E7%8E%B0%EF%BC%89%E7%9A%84%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C%E6%95%B0%E9%87%8F%20%3D%22,%20count%29&codeDivHeight=472&codeDivWidth=350&cumulative=false&curInstr=3&heapPrimitives=nevernest&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=311&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false"> </iframe></div>
<div style="margin-top: 5px;"><a href="https://pythontutor.com/iframe-embed.html#code=def%20logarithmic%28n%3A%20int%29%20-%3E%20int%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E5%AF%B9%E6%95%B0%E9%98%B6%EF%BC%88%E5%BE%AA%E7%8E%AF%E5%AE%9E%E7%8E%B0%EF%BC%89%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%200%0A%20%20%20%20while%20n%20%3E%201%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%20n%20/%202%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20count%20%2B%3D%201%0A%20%20%20%20return%20count%0A%0A%22%22%22Driver%20Code%22%22%22%0Aif%20__name__%20%3D%3D%20%22__main__%22%3A%0A%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%208%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E8%BE%93%E5%85%A5%E6%95%B0%E6%8D%AE%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%20n%20%3D%22,%20n%29%0A%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%20logarithmic%28n%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E5%AF%B9%E6%95%B0%E9%98%B6%EF%BC%88%E5%BE%AA%E7%8E%AF%E5%AE%9E%E7%8E%B0%EF%BC%89%E7%9A%84%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C%E6%95%B0%E9%87%8F%20%3D%22,%20count%29&codeDivHeight=800&codeDivWidth=600&cumulative=false&curInstr=3&heapPrimitives=nevernest&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=311&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">全螢幕觀看 ></a></div>

對數階的時間複雜度{ class="animation-figure" }

圖 2-12   對數階的時間複雜度

與指數階類似,對數階也常出現於遞迴函式中。以下程式碼形成了一棵高度為 \log_2 n 的遞迴樹:

=== "Python"

```python title="time_complexity.py"
def log_recur(n: int) -> int:
    """對數階(遞迴實現)"""
    if n <= 1:
        return 0
    return log_recur(n / 2) + 1
```

=== "C++"

```cpp title="time_complexity.cpp"
/* 對數階(遞迴實現) */
int logRecur(int n) {
    if (n <= 1)
        return 0;
    return logRecur(n / 2) + 1;
}
```

=== "Java"

```java title="time_complexity.java"
/* 對數階(遞迴實現) */
int logRecur(int n) {
    if (n <= 1)
        return 0;
    return logRecur(n / 2) + 1;
}
```

=== "C#"

```csharp title="time_complexity.cs"
/* 對數階(遞迴實現) */
int LogRecur(int n) {
    if (n <= 1) return 0;
    return LogRecur(n / 2) + 1;
}
```

=== "Go"

```go title="time_complexity.go"
/* 對數階(遞迴實現)*/
func logRecur(n int) int {
    if n <= 1 {
        return 0
    }
    return logRecur(n/2) + 1
}
```

=== "Swift"

```swift title="time_complexity.swift"
/* 對數階(遞迴實現) */
func logRecur(n: Int) -> Int {
    if n <= 1 {
        return 0
    }
    return logRecur(n: n / 2) + 1
}
```

=== "JS"

```javascript title="time_complexity.js"
/* 對數階(遞迴實現) */
function logRecur(n) {
    if (n <= 1) return 0;
    return logRecur(n / 2) + 1;
}
```

=== "TS"

```typescript title="time_complexity.ts"
/* 對數階(遞迴實現) */
function logRecur(n: number): number {
    if (n <= 1) return 0;
    return logRecur(n / 2) + 1;
}
```

=== "Dart"

```dart title="time_complexity.dart"
/* 對數階(遞迴實現) */
int logRecur(int n) {
  if (n <= 1) return 0;
  return logRecur(n ~/ 2) + 1;
}
```

=== "Rust"

```rust title="time_complexity.rs"
/* 對數階(遞迴實現) */
fn log_recur(n: i32) -> i32 {
    if n <= 1 {
        return 0;
    }
    log_recur(n / 2) + 1
}
```

=== "C"

```c title="time_complexity.c"
/* 對數階(遞迴實現) */
int logRecur(int n) {
    if (n <= 1)
        return 0;
    return logRecur(n / 2) + 1;
}
```

=== "Kotlin"

```kotlin title="time_complexity.kt"
/* 對數階(遞迴實現) */
fun logRecur(n: Int): Int {
    if (n <= 1)
        return 0
    return logRecur(n / 2) + 1
}
```

=== "Ruby"

```ruby title="time_complexity.rb"
### 對數階(遞迴實現)###
def log_recur(n)
  return 0 unless n > 1
  log_recur(n / 2) + 1
end
```

=== "Zig"

```zig title="time_complexity.zig"
// 對數階(遞迴實現)
fn logRecur(n: i32) i32 {
    if (n <= 1) return 0;
    return logRecur(n / 2) + 1;
}
```

??? pythontutor "視覺化執行"

<div style="height: 423px; width: 100%;"><iframe class="pythontutor-iframe" src="https://pythontutor.com/iframe-embed.html#code=def%20log_recur%28n%3A%20int%29%20-%3E%20int%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E5%AF%B9%E6%95%B0%E9%98%B6%EF%BC%88%E9%80%92%E5%BD%92%E5%AE%9E%E7%8E%B0%EF%BC%89%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20if%20n%20%3C%3D%201%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20return%200%0A%20%20%20%20return%20log_recur%28n%20/%202%29%20%2B%201%0A%0A%22%22%22Driver%20Code%22%22%22%0Aif%20__name__%20%3D%3D%20%22__main__%22%3A%0A%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%208%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E8%BE%93%E5%85%A5%E6%95%B0%E6%8D%AE%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%20n%20%3D%22,%20n%29%0A%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%20log_recur%28n%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E5%AF%B9%E6%95%B0%E9%98%B6%EF%BC%88%E9%80%92%E5%BD%92%E5%AE%9E%E7%8E%B0%EF%BC%89%E7%9A%84%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C%E6%95%B0%E9%87%8F%20%3D%22,%20count%29&codeDivHeight=472&codeDivWidth=350&cumulative=false&curInstr=4&heapPrimitives=nevernest&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=311&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false"> </iframe></div>
<div style="margin-top: 5px;"><a href="https://pythontutor.com/iframe-embed.html#code=def%20log_recur%28n%3A%20int%29%20-%3E%20int%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E5%AF%B9%E6%95%B0%E9%98%B6%EF%BC%88%E9%80%92%E5%BD%92%E5%AE%9E%E7%8E%B0%EF%BC%89%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20if%20n%20%3C%3D%201%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20return%200%0A%20%20%20%20return%20log_recur%28n%20/%202%29%20%2B%201%0A%0A%22%22%22Driver%20Code%22%22%22%0Aif%20__name__%20%3D%3D%20%22__main__%22%3A%0A%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%208%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E8%BE%93%E5%85%A5%E6%95%B0%E6%8D%AE%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%20n%20%3D%22,%20n%29%0A%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%20log_recur%28n%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E5%AF%B9%E6%95%B0%E9%98%B6%EF%BC%88%E9%80%92%E5%BD%92%E5%AE%9E%E7%8E%B0%EF%BC%89%E7%9A%84%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C%E6%95%B0%E9%87%8F%20%3D%22,%20count%29&codeDivHeight=800&codeDivWidth=600&cumulative=false&curInstr=4&heapPrimitives=nevernest&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=311&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">全螢幕觀看 ></a></div>

對數階常出現於基於分治策略的演算法中,體現了“一分為多”和“化繁為簡”的演算法思想。它增長緩慢,是僅次於常數階的理想的時間複雜度。

!!! tip "O(\log n) 的底數是多少?"

準確來說,“一分為 $m$”對應的時間複雜度是 $O(\log_m n)$ 。而透過對數換底公式,我們可以得到具有不同底數、相等的時間複雜度:

$$
O(\log_m n) = O(\log_k n / \log_k m) = O(\log_k n)
$$

也就是說,底數 $m$ 可以在不影響複雜度的前提下轉換。因此我們通常會省略底數 $m$ ,將對數階直接記為 $O(\log n)$ 。

6.   線性對數階 O(n \log n)

線性對數階常出現於巢狀迴圈中,兩層迴圈的時間複雜度分別為 O(\log n)O(n) 。相關程式碼如下:

=== "Python"

```python title="time_complexity.py"
def linear_log_recur(n: int) -> int:
    """線性對數階"""
    if n <= 1:
        return 1
    count: int = linear_log_recur(n // 2) + linear_log_recur(n // 2)
    for _ in range(n):
        count += 1
    return count
```

=== "C++"

```cpp title="time_complexity.cpp"
/* 線性對數階 */
int linearLogRecur(int n) {
    if (n <= 1)
        return 1;
    int count = linearLogRecur(n / 2) + linearLogRecur(n / 2);
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        count++;
    }
    return count;
}
```

=== "Java"

```java title="time_complexity.java"
/* 線性對數階 */
int linearLogRecur(int n) {
    if (n <= 1)
        return 1;
    int count = linearLogRecur(n / 2) + linearLogRecur(n / 2);
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        count++;
    }
    return count;
}
```

=== "C#"

```csharp title="time_complexity.cs"
/* 線性對數階 */
int LinearLogRecur(int n) {
    if (n <= 1) return 1;
    int count = LinearLogRecur(n / 2) + LinearLogRecur(n / 2);
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        count++;
    }
    return count;
}
```

=== "Go"

```go title="time_complexity.go"
/* 線性對數階 */
func linearLogRecur(n int) int {
    if n <= 1 {
        return 1
    }
    count := linearLogRecur(n/2) + linearLogRecur(n/2)
    for i := 0; i < n; i++ {
        count++
    }
    return count
}
```

=== "Swift"

```swift title="time_complexity.swift"
/* 線性對數階 */
func linearLogRecur(n: Int) -> Int {
    if n <= 1 {
        return 1
    }
    var count = linearLogRecur(n: n / 2) + linearLogRecur(n: n / 2)
    for _ in stride(from: 0, to: n, by: 1) {
        count += 1
    }
    return count
}
```

=== "JS"

```javascript title="time_complexity.js"
/* 線性對數階 */
function linearLogRecur(n) {
    if (n <= 1) return 1;
    let count = linearLogRecur(n / 2) + linearLogRecur(n / 2);
    for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        count++;
    }
    return count;
}
```

=== "TS"

```typescript title="time_complexity.ts"
/* 線性對數階 */
function linearLogRecur(n: number): number {
    if (n <= 1) return 1;
    let count = linearLogRecur(n / 2) + linearLogRecur(n / 2);
    for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        count++;
    }
    return count;
}
```

=== "Dart"

```dart title="time_complexity.dart"
/* 線性對數階 */
int linearLogRecur(int n) {
  if (n <= 1) return 1;
  int count = linearLogRecur(n ~/ 2) + linearLogRecur(n ~/ 2);
  for (var i = 0; i < n; i++) {
    count++;
  }
  return count;
}
```

=== "Rust"

```rust title="time_complexity.rs"
/* 線性對數階 */
fn linear_log_recur(n: i32) -> i32 {
    if n <= 1 {
        return 1;
    }
    let mut count = linear_log_recur(n / 2) + linear_log_recur(n / 2);
    for _ in 0..n as i32 {
        count += 1;
    }
    return count;
}
```

=== "C"

```c title="time_complexity.c"
/* 線性對數階 */
int linearLogRecur(int n) {
    if (n <= 1)
        return 1;
    int count = linearLogRecur(n / 2) + linearLogRecur(n / 2);
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        count++;
    }
    return count;
}
```

=== "Kotlin"

```kotlin title="time_complexity.kt"
/* 線性對數階 */
fun linearLogRecur(n: Int): Int {
    if (n <= 1)
        return 1
    var count = linearLogRecur(n / 2) + linearLogRecur(n / 2)
    for (i in 0..<n.toInt()) {
        count++
    }
    return count
}
```

=== "Ruby"

```ruby title="time_complexity.rb"
### 線性對數階 ###
def linear_log_recur(n)
  return 1 unless n > 1

  count = linear_log_recur(n / 2) + linear_log_recur(n / 2)
  (0...n).each { count += 1 }

  count
end
```

=== "Zig"

```zig title="time_complexity.zig"
// 線性對數階
fn linearLogRecur(n: i32) i32 {
    if (n <= 1) return 1;
    var count: i32 = linearLogRecur(n / 2) + linearLogRecur(n / 2);
    var i: i32 = 0;
    while (i < n) : (i += 1) {
        count += 1;
    }
    return count;
}
```

??? pythontutor "視覺化執行"

<div style="height: 477px; width: 100%;"><iframe class="pythontutor-iframe" src="https://pythontutor.com/iframe-embed.html#code=def%20linear_log_recur%28n%3A%20int%29%20-%3E%20int%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E7%BA%BF%E6%80%A7%E5%AF%B9%E6%95%B0%E9%98%B6%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20if%20n%20%3C%3D%201%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20return%201%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%20linear_log_recur%28n%20//%202%29%20%2B%20linear_log_recur%28n%20//%202%29%0A%20%20%20%20for%20_%20in%20range%28n%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20count%20%2B%3D%201%0A%20%20%20%20return%20count%0A%0A%22%22%22Driver%20Code%22%22%22%0Aif%20__name__%20%3D%3D%20%22__main__%22%3A%0A%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%208%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E8%BE%93%E5%85%A5%E6%95%B0%E6%8D%AE%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%20n%20%3D%22,%20n%29%0A%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%20linear_log_recur%28n%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E7%BA%BF%E6%80%A7%E5%AF%B9%E6%95%B0%E9%98%B6%EF%BC%88%E9%80%92%E5%BD%92%E5%AE%9E%E7%8E%B0%EF%BC%89%E7%9A%84%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C%E6%95%B0%E9%87%8F%20%3D%22,%20count%29&codeDivHeight=472&codeDivWidth=350&cumulative=false&curInstr=4&heapPrimitives=nevernest&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=311&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false"> </iframe></div>
<div style="margin-top: 5px;"><a href="https://pythontutor.com/iframe-embed.html#code=def%20linear_log_recur%28n%3A%20int%29%20-%3E%20int%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E7%BA%BF%E6%80%A7%E5%AF%B9%E6%95%B0%E9%98%B6%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20if%20n%20%3C%3D%201%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20return%201%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%20linear_log_recur%28n%20//%202%29%20%2B%20linear_log_recur%28n%20//%202%29%0A%20%20%20%20for%20_%20in%20range%28n%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20count%20%2B%3D%201%0A%20%20%20%20return%20count%0A%0A%22%22%22Driver%20Code%22%22%22%0Aif%20__name__%20%3D%3D%20%22__main__%22%3A%0A%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%208%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E8%BE%93%E5%85%A5%E6%95%B0%E6%8D%AE%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%20n%20%3D%22,%20n%29%0A%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%20linear_log_recur%28n%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E7%BA%BF%E6%80%A7%E5%AF%B9%E6%95%B0%E9%98%B6%EF%BC%88%E9%80%92%E5%BD%92%E5%AE%9E%E7%8E%B0%EF%BC%89%E7%9A%84%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C%E6%95%B0%E9%87%8F%20%3D%22,%20count%29&codeDivHeight=800&codeDivWidth=600&cumulative=false&curInstr=4&heapPrimitives=nevernest&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=311&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">全螢幕觀看 ></a></div>

圖 2-13 展示了線性對數階的生成方式。二元樹的每一層的操作總數都為 n ,樹共有 \log_2 n + 1 層,因此時間複雜度為 O(n \log n)

線性對數階的時間複雜度{ class="animation-figure" }

圖 2-13   線性對數階的時間複雜度

主流排序演算法的時間複雜度通常為 O(n \log n) ,例如快速排序、合併排序、堆積排序等。

7.   階乘階 O(n!)

階乘階對應數學上的“全排列”問題。給定 n 個互不重複的元素,求其所有可能的排列方案,方案數量為:


n! = n \times (n - 1) \times (n - 2) \times \dots \times 2 \times 1

階乘通常使用遞迴實現。如圖 2-14 和以下程式碼所示,第一層分裂出 n 個,第二層分裂出 n - 1 個,以此類推,直至第 n 層時停止分裂:

=== "Python"

```python title="time_complexity.py"
def factorial_recur(n: int) -> int:
    """階乘階(遞迴實現)"""
    if n == 0:
        return 1
    count = 0
    # 從 1 個分裂出 n 個
    for _ in range(n):
        count += factorial_recur(n - 1)
    return count
```

=== "C++"

```cpp title="time_complexity.cpp"
/* 階乘階(遞迴實現) */
int factorialRecur(int n) {
    if (n == 0)
        return 1;
    int count = 0;
    // 從 1 個分裂出 n 個
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        count += factorialRecur(n - 1);
    }
    return count;
}
```

=== "Java"

```java title="time_complexity.java"
/* 階乘階(遞迴實現) */
int factorialRecur(int n) {
    if (n == 0)
        return 1;
    int count = 0;
    // 從 1 個分裂出 n 個
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        count += factorialRecur(n - 1);
    }
    return count;
}
```

=== "C#"

```csharp title="time_complexity.cs"
/* 階乘階(遞迴實現) */
int FactorialRecur(int n) {
    if (n == 0) return 1;
    int count = 0;
    // 從 1 個分裂出 n 個
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        count += FactorialRecur(n - 1);
    }
    return count;
}
```

=== "Go"

```go title="time_complexity.go"
/* 階乘階(遞迴實現) */
func factorialRecur(n int) int {
    if n == 0 {
        return 1
    }
    count := 0
    // 從 1 個分裂出 n 個
    for i := 0; i < n; i++ {
        count += factorialRecur(n - 1)
    }
    return count
}
```

=== "Swift"

```swift title="time_complexity.swift"
/* 階乘階(遞迴實現) */
func factorialRecur(n: Int) -> Int {
    if n == 0 {
        return 1
    }
    var count = 0
    // 從 1 個分裂出 n 個
    for _ in 0 ..< n {
        count += factorialRecur(n: n - 1)
    }
    return count
}
```

=== "JS"

```javascript title="time_complexity.js"
/* 階乘階(遞迴實現) */
function factorialRecur(n) {
    if (n === 0) return 1;
    let count = 0;
    // 從 1 個分裂出 n 個
    for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        count += factorialRecur(n - 1);
    }
    return count;
}
```

=== "TS"

```typescript title="time_complexity.ts"
/* 階乘階(遞迴實現) */
function factorialRecur(n: number): number {
    if (n === 0) return 1;
    let count = 0;
    // 從 1 個分裂出 n 個
    for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        count += factorialRecur(n - 1);
    }
    return count;
}
```

=== "Dart"

```dart title="time_complexity.dart"
/* 階乘階(遞迴實現) */
int factorialRecur(int n) {
  if (n == 0) return 1;
  int count = 0;
  // 從 1 個分裂出 n 個
  for (var i = 0; i < n; i++) {
    count += factorialRecur(n - 1);
  }
  return count;
}
```

=== "Rust"

```rust title="time_complexity.rs"
/* 階乘階(遞迴實現) */
fn factorial_recur(n: i32) -> i32 {
    if n == 0 {
        return 1;
    }
    let mut count = 0;
    // 從 1 個分裂出 n 個
    for _ in 0..n {
        count += factorial_recur(n - 1);
    }
    count
}
```

=== "C"

```c title="time_complexity.c"
/* 階乘階(遞迴實現) */
int factorialRecur(int n) {
    if (n == 0)
        return 1;
    int count = 0;
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        count += factorialRecur(n - 1);
    }
    return count;
}
```

=== "Kotlin"

```kotlin title="time_complexity.kt"
/* 階乘階(遞迴實現) */
fun factorialRecur(n: Int): Int {
    if (n == 0)
        return 1
    var count = 0
    // 從 1 個分裂出 n 個
    for (i in 0..<n) {
        count += factorialRecur(n - 1)
    }
    return count
}
```

=== "Ruby"

```ruby title="time_complexity.rb"
### 階乘階(遞迴實現)###
def factorial_recur(n)
  return 1 if n == 0

  count = 0
  # 從 1 個分裂出 n 個
  (0...n).each { count += factorial_recur(n - 1) }

  count
end
```

=== "Zig"

```zig title="time_complexity.zig"
// 階乘階(遞迴實現)
fn factorialRecur(n: i32) i32 {
    if (n == 0) return 1;
    var count: i32 = 0;
    var i: i32 = 0;
    // 從 1 個分裂出 n 個
    while (i < n) : (i += 1) {
        count += factorialRecur(n - 1);
    }
    return count;
}
```

??? pythontutor "視覺化執行"

<div style="height: 495px; width: 100%;"><iframe class="pythontutor-iframe" src="https://pythontutor.com/iframe-embed.html#code=def%20factorial_recur%28n%29%20-%3E%20int%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E9%98%B6%E4%B9%98%E9%98%B6%EF%BC%88%E9%80%92%E5%BD%92%E5%AE%9E%E7%8E%B0%EF%BC%89%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20if%20n%20%3D%3D%200%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20return%201%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%200%0A%20%20%20%20%23%20%E4%BB%8E%201%20%E4%B8%AA%E5%88%86%E8%A3%82%E5%87%BA%20n%20%E4%B8%AA%0A%20%20%20%20for%20_%20in%20range%28n%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20count%20%2B%3D%20factorial_recur%28n%20-%201%29%0A%20%20%20%20return%20count%0A%0A%22%22%22Driver%20Code%22%22%22%0Aif%20__name__%20%3D%3D%20%22__main__%22%3A%0A%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%204%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E8%BE%93%E5%85%A5%E6%95%B0%E6%8D%AE%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%20n%20%3D%22,%20n%29%0A%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%20factorial_recur%28n%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E9%98%B6%E4%B9%98%E9%98%B6%EF%BC%88%E9%80%92%E5%BD%92%E5%AE%9E%E7%8E%B0%EF%BC%89%E7%9A%84%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C%E6%95%B0%E9%87%8F%20%3D%22,%20count%29&codeDivHeight=472&codeDivWidth=350&cumulative=false&curInstr=3&heapPrimitives=nevernest&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=311&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false"> </iframe></div>
<div style="margin-top: 5px;"><a href="https://pythontutor.com/iframe-embed.html#code=def%20factorial_recur%28n%29%20-%3E%20int%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E9%98%B6%E4%B9%98%E9%98%B6%EF%BC%88%E9%80%92%E5%BD%92%E5%AE%9E%E7%8E%B0%EF%BC%89%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20if%20n%20%3D%3D%200%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20return%201%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%200%0A%20%20%20%20%23%20%E4%BB%8E%201%20%E4%B8%AA%E5%88%86%E8%A3%82%E5%87%BA%20n%20%E4%B8%AA%0A%20%20%20%20for%20_%20in%20range%28n%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20count%20%2B%3D%20factorial_recur%28n%20-%201%29%0A%20%20%20%20return%20count%0A%0A%22%22%22Driver%20Code%22%22%22%0Aif%20__name__%20%3D%3D%20%22__main__%22%3A%0A%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%204%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E8%BE%93%E5%85%A5%E6%95%B0%E6%8D%AE%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%20n%20%3D%22,%20n%29%0A%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%20factorial_recur%28n%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E9%98%B6%E4%B9%98%E9%98%B6%EF%BC%88%E9%80%92%E5%BD%92%E5%AE%9E%E7%8E%B0%EF%BC%89%E7%9A%84%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C%E6%95%B0%E9%87%8F%20%3D%22,%20count%29&codeDivHeight=800&codeDivWidth=600&cumulative=false&curInstr=3&heapPrimitives=nevernest&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=311&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">全螢幕觀看 ></a></div>

階乘階的時間複雜度{ class="animation-figure" }

圖 2-14   階乘階的時間複雜度

請注意,因為當 n \geq 4 時恆有 n! > 2^n ,所以階乘階比指數階增長得更快,在 n 較大時也是不可接受的。

2.3.5   最差、最佳、平均時間複雜度

演算法的時間效率往往不是固定的,而是與輸入資料的分佈有關。假設輸入一個長度為 n 的陣列 nums ,其中 nums 由從 1n 的數字組成,每個數字只出現一次;但元素順序是隨機打亂的,任務目標是返回元素 1 的索引。我們可以得出以下結論。

  • nums = [?, ?, ..., 1] ,即當末尾元素是 1 時,需要完整走訪陣列,達到最差時間複雜度 O(n)
  • nums = [1, ?, ?, ...] ,即當首個元素為 1 時,無論陣列多長都不需要繼續走訪,達到最佳時間複雜度 \Omega(1)

“最差時間複雜度”對應函式漸近上界,使用大 O 記號表示。相應地,“最佳時間複雜度”對應函式漸近下界,用 \Omega 記號表示:

=== "Python"

```python title="worst_best_time_complexity.py"
def random_numbers(n: int) -> list[int]:
    """生成一個陣列,元素為: 1, 2, ..., n ,順序被打亂"""
    # 生成陣列 nums =: 1, 2, 3, ..., n
    nums = [i for i in range(1, n + 1)]
    # 隨機打亂陣列元素
    random.shuffle(nums)
    return nums

def find_one(nums: list[int]) -> int:
    """查詢陣列 nums 中數字 1 所在索引"""
    for i in range(len(nums)):
        # 當元素 1 在陣列頭部時,達到最佳時間複雜度 O(1)
        # 當元素 1 在陣列尾部時,達到最差時間複雜度 O(n)
        if nums[i] == 1:
            return i
    return -1
```

=== "C++"

```cpp title="worst_best_time_complexity.cpp"
/* 生成一個陣列,元素為 { 1, 2, ..., n },順序被打亂 */
vector<int> randomNumbers(int n) {
    vector<int> nums(n);
    // 生成陣列 nums = { 1, 2, 3, ..., n }
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        nums[i] = i + 1;
    }
    // 使用系統時間生成隨機種子
    unsigned seed = chrono::system_clock::now().time_since_epoch().count();
    // 隨機打亂陣列元素
    shuffle(nums.begin(), nums.end(), default_random_engine(seed));
    return nums;
}

/* 查詢陣列 nums 中數字 1 所在索引 */
int findOne(vector<int> &nums) {
    for (int i = 0; i < nums.size(); i++) {
        // 當元素 1 在陣列頭部時,達到最佳時間複雜度 O(1)
        // 當元素 1 在陣列尾部時,達到最差時間複雜度 O(n)
        if (nums[i] == 1)
            return i;
    }
    return -1;
}
```

=== "Java"

```java title="worst_best_time_complexity.java"
/* 生成一個陣列,元素為 { 1, 2, ..., n },順序被打亂 */
int[] randomNumbers(int n) {
    Integer[] nums = new Integer[n];
    // 生成陣列 nums = { 1, 2, 3, ..., n }
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        nums[i] = i + 1;
    }
    // 隨機打亂陣列元素
    Collections.shuffle(Arrays.asList(nums));
    // Integer[] -> int[]
    int[] res = new int[n];
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        res[i] = nums[i];
    }
    return res;
}

/* 查詢陣列 nums 中數字 1 所在索引 */
int findOne(int[] nums) {
    for (int i = 0; i < nums.length; i++) {
        // 當元素 1 在陣列頭部時,達到最佳時間複雜度 O(1)
        // 當元素 1 在陣列尾部時,達到最差時間複雜度 O(n)
        if (nums[i] == 1)
            return i;
    }
    return -1;
}
```

=== "C#"

```csharp title="worst_best_time_complexity.cs"
/* 生成一個陣列,元素為 { 1, 2, ..., n },順序被打亂 */
int[] RandomNumbers(int n) {
    int[] nums = new int[n];
    // 生成陣列 nums = { 1, 2, 3, ..., n }
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        nums[i] = i + 1;
    }

    // 隨機打亂陣列元素
    for (int i = 0; i < nums.Length; i++) {
        int index = new Random().Next(i, nums.Length);
        (nums[i], nums[index]) = (nums[index], nums[i]);
    }
    return nums;
}

/* 查詢陣列 nums 中數字 1 所在索引 */
int FindOne(int[] nums) {
    for (int i = 0; i < nums.Length; i++) {
        // 當元素 1 在陣列頭部時,達到最佳時間複雜度 O(1)
        // 當元素 1 在陣列尾部時,達到最差時間複雜度 O(n)
        if (nums[i] == 1)
            return i;
    }
    return -1;
}
```

=== "Go"

```go title="worst_best_time_complexity.go"
/* 生成一個陣列,元素為 { 1, 2, ..., n },順序被打亂 */
func randomNumbers(n int) []int {
    nums := make([]int, n)
    // 生成陣列 nums = { 1, 2, 3, ..., n }
    for i := 0; i < n; i++ {
        nums[i] = i + 1
    }
    // 隨機打亂陣列元素
    rand.Shuffle(len(nums), func(i, j int) {
        nums[i], nums[j] = nums[j], nums[i]
    })
    return nums
}

/* 查詢陣列 nums 中數字 1 所在索引 */
func findOne(nums []int) int {
    for i := 0; i < len(nums); i++ {
        // 當元素 1 在陣列頭部時,達到最佳時間複雜度 O(1)
        // 當元素 1 在陣列尾部時,達到最差時間複雜度 O(n)
        if nums[i] == 1 {
            return i
        }
    }
    return -1
}
```

=== "Swift"

```swift title="worst_best_time_complexity.swift"
/* 生成一個陣列,元素為 { 1, 2, ..., n },順序被打亂 */
func randomNumbers(n: Int) -> [Int] {
    // 生成陣列 nums = { 1, 2, 3, ..., n }
    var nums = Array(1 ... n)
    // 隨機打亂陣列元素
    nums.shuffle()
    return nums
}

/* 查詢陣列 nums 中數字 1 所在索引 */
func findOne(nums: [Int]) -> Int {
    for i in nums.indices {
        // 當元素 1 在陣列頭部時,達到最佳時間複雜度 O(1)
        // 當元素 1 在陣列尾部時,達到最差時間複雜度 O(n)
        if nums[i] == 1 {
            return i
        }
    }
    return -1
}
```

=== "JS"

```javascript title="worst_best_time_complexity.js"
/* 生成一個陣列,元素為 { 1, 2, ..., n },順序被打亂 */
function randomNumbers(n) {
    const nums = Array(n);
    // 生成陣列 nums = { 1, 2, 3, ..., n }
    for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        nums[i] = i + 1;
    }
    // 隨機打亂陣列元素
    for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        const r = Math.floor(Math.random() * (i + 1));
        const temp = nums[i];
        nums[i] = nums[r];
        nums[r] = temp;
    }
    return nums;
}

/* 查詢陣列 nums 中數字 1 所在索引 */
function findOne(nums) {
    for (let i = 0; i < nums.length; i++) {
        // 當元素 1 在陣列頭部時,達到最佳時間複雜度 O(1)
        // 當元素 1 在陣列尾部時,達到最差時間複雜度 O(n)
        if (nums[i] === 1) {
            return i;
        }
    }
    return -1;
}
```

=== "TS"

```typescript title="worst_best_time_complexity.ts"
/* 生成一個陣列,元素為 { 1, 2, ..., n },順序被打亂 */
function randomNumbers(n: number): number[] {
    const nums = Array(n);
    // 生成陣列 nums = { 1, 2, 3, ..., n }
    for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        nums[i] = i + 1;
    }
    // 隨機打亂陣列元素
    for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        const r = Math.floor(Math.random() * (i + 1));
        const temp = nums[i];
        nums[i] = nums[r];
        nums[r] = temp;
    }
    return nums;
}

/* 查詢陣列 nums 中數字 1 所在索引 */
function findOne(nums: number[]): number {
    for (let i = 0; i < nums.length; i++) {
        // 當元素 1 在陣列頭部時,達到最佳時間複雜度 O(1)
        // 當元素 1 在陣列尾部時,達到最差時間複雜度 O(n)
        if (nums[i] === 1) {
            return i;
        }
    }
    return -1;
}
```

=== "Dart"

```dart title="worst_best_time_complexity.dart"
/* 生成一個陣列,元素為 { 1, 2, ..., n },順序被打亂 */
List<int> randomNumbers(int n) {
  final nums = List.filled(n, 0);
  // 生成陣列 nums = { 1, 2, 3, ..., n }
  for (var i = 0; i < n; i++) {
    nums[i] = i + 1;
  }
  // 隨機打亂陣列元素
  nums.shuffle();

  return nums;
}

/* 查詢陣列 nums 中數字 1 所在索引 */
int findOne(List<int> nums) {
  for (var i = 0; i < nums.length; i++) {
    // 當元素 1 在陣列頭部時,達到最佳時間複雜度 O(1)
    // 當元素 1 在陣列尾部時,達到最差時間複雜度 O(n)
    if (nums[i] == 1) return i;
  }

  return -1;
}
```

=== "Rust"

```rust title="worst_best_time_complexity.rs"
/* 生成一個陣列,元素為 { 1, 2, ..., n },順序被打亂 */
fn random_numbers(n: i32) -> Vec<i32> {
    // 生成陣列 nums = { 1, 2, 3, ..., n }
    let mut nums = (1..=n).collect::<Vec<i32>>();
    // 隨機打亂陣列元素
    nums.shuffle(&mut thread_rng());
    nums
}

/* 查詢陣列 nums 中數字 1 所在索引 */
fn find_one(nums: &[i32]) -> Option<usize> {
    for i in 0..nums.len() {
        // 當元素 1 在陣列頭部時,達到最佳時間複雜度 O(1)
        // 當元素 1 在陣列尾部時,達到最差時間複雜度 O(n)
        if nums[i] == 1 {
            return Some(i);
        }
    }
    None
}
```

=== "C"

```c title="worst_best_time_complexity.c"
/* 生成一個陣列,元素為 { 1, 2, ..., n },順序被打亂 */
int *randomNumbers(int n) {
    // 分配堆積區記憶體(建立一維可變長陣列:陣列中元素數量為 n ,元素型別為 int 
    int *nums = (int *)malloc(n * sizeof(int));
    // 生成陣列 nums = { 1, 2, 3, ..., n }
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        nums[i] = i + 1;
    }
    // 隨機打亂陣列元素
    for (int i = n - 1; i > 0; i--) {
        int j = rand() % (i + 1);
        int temp = nums[i];
        nums[i] = nums[j];
        nums[j] = temp;
    }
    return nums;
}

/* 查詢陣列 nums 中數字 1 所在索引 */
int findOne(int *nums, int n) {
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        // 當元素 1 在陣列頭部時,達到最佳時間複雜度 O(1)
        // 當元素 1 在陣列尾部時,達到最差時間複雜度 O(n)
        if (nums[i] == 1)
            return i;
    }
    return -1;
}
```

=== "Kotlin"

```kotlin title="worst_best_time_complexity.kt"
/* 生成一個陣列,元素為 { 1, 2, ..., n },順序被打亂 */
fun randomNumbers(n: Int): Array<Int?> {
    val nums = IntArray(n)
    // 生成陣列 nums = { 1, 2, 3, ..., n }
    for (i in 0..<n) {
        nums[i] = i + 1
    }
    // 隨機打亂陣列元素
    val mutableList = nums.toMutableList()
    mutableList.shuffle()
    // Integer[] -> int[]
    val res = arrayOfNulls<Int>(n)
    for (i in 0..<n) {
        res[i] = mutableList[i]
    }
    return res
}

/* 查詢陣列 nums 中數字 1 所在索引 */
fun findOne(nums: Array<Int?>): Int {
    for (i in nums.indices) {
        // 當元素 1 在陣列頭部時,達到最佳時間複雜度 O(1)
        // 當元素 1 在陣列尾部時,達到最差時間複雜度 O(n)
        if (nums[i] == 1)
            return i
    }
    return -1
}
```

=== "Ruby"

```ruby title="worst_best_time_complexity.rb"
### 生成一個陣列,元素為: 1, 2, ..., n ,順序被打亂 ###
def random_numbers(n)
  # 生成陣列 nums =: 1, 2, 3, ..., n
  nums = Array.new(n) { |i| i + 1 }
  # 隨機打亂陣列元素
  nums.shuffle!
end

### 查詢陣列 nums 中數字 1 所在索引 ###
def find_one(nums)
  for i in 0...nums.length
    # 當元素 1 在陣列頭部時,達到最佳時間複雜度 O(1)
    # 當元素 1 在陣列尾部時,達到最差時間複雜度 O(n)
    return i if nums[i] == 1
  end

  -1
end
```

=== "Zig"

```zig title="worst_best_time_complexity.zig"
// 生成一個陣列,元素為 { 1, 2, ..., n },順序被打亂
fn randomNumbers(comptime n: usize) [n]i32 {
    var nums: [n]i32 = undefined;
    // 生成陣列 nums = { 1, 2, 3, ..., n }
    for (&nums, 0..) |*num, i| {
        num.* = @as(i32, @intCast(i)) + 1;
    }
    // 隨機打亂陣列元素
    const rand = std.crypto.random;
    rand.shuffle(i32, &nums);
    return nums;
}

// 查詢陣列 nums 中數字 1 所在索引
fn findOne(nums: []i32) i32 {
    for (nums, 0..) |num, i| {
        // 當元素 1 在陣列頭部時,達到最佳時間複雜度 O(1)
        // 當元素 1 在陣列尾部時,達到最差時間複雜度 O(n)
        if (num == 1) return @intCast(i);
    }
    return -1;
}
```

??? pythontutor "視覺化執行"

<div style="height: 549px; width: 100%;"><iframe class="pythontutor-iframe" src="https://pythontutor.com/iframe-embed.html#code=import%20random%0A%0Adef%20random_numbers%28n%3A%20int%29%20-%3E%20list%5Bint%5D%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E7%94%9F%E6%88%90%E4%B8%80%E4%B8%AA%E6%95%B0%E7%BB%84%EF%BC%8C%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0%E4%B8%BA%3A%201,%202,%20...,%20n%20%EF%BC%8C%E9%A1%BA%E5%BA%8F%E8%A2%AB%E6%89%93%E4%B9%B1%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20%23%20%E7%94%9F%E6%88%90%E6%95%B0%E7%BB%84%20nums%20%3D%3A%201,%202,%203,%20...,%20n%0A%20%20%20%20nums%20%3D%20%5Bi%20for%20i%20in%20range%281,%20n%20%2B%201%29%5D%0A%20%20%20%20%23%20%E9%9A%8F%E6%9C%BA%E6%89%93%E4%B9%B1%E6%95%B0%E7%BB%84%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0%0A%20%20%20%20random.shuffle%28nums%29%0A%20%20%20%20return%20nums%0A%0Adef%20find_one%28nums%3A%20list%5Bint%5D%29%20-%3E%20int%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E6%9F%A5%E6%89%BE%E6%95%B0%E7%BB%84%20nums%20%E4%B8%AD%E6%95%B0%E5%AD%97%201%20%E6%89%80%E5%9C%A8%E7%B4%A2%E5%BC%95%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20for%20i%20in%20range%28len%28nums%29%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%23%20%E5%BD%93%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0%201%20%E5%9C%A8%E6%95%B0%E7%BB%84%E5%A4%B4%E9%83%A8%E6%97%B6%EF%BC%8C%E8%BE%BE%E5%88%B0%E6%9C%80%E4%BD%B3%E6%97%B6%E9%97%B4%E5%A4%8D%E6%9D%82%E5%BA%A6%20O%281%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%23%20%E5%BD%93%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0%201%20%E5%9C%A8%E6%95%B0%E7%BB%84%E5%B0%BE%E9%83%A8%E6%97%B6%EF%BC%8C%E8%BE%BE%E5%88%B0%E6%9C%80%E5%B7%AE%E6%97%B6%E9%97%B4%E5%A4%8D%E6%9D%82%E5%BA%A6%20O%28n%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20if%20nums%5Bi%5D%20%3D%3D%201%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20return%20i%0A%20%20%20%20return%20-1%0A%0A%22%22%22Driver%20Code%22%22%22%0Aif%20__name__%20%3D%3D%20%22__main__%22%3A%0A%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%2010%0A%20%20%20%20nums%20%3D%20random_numbers%28n%29%0A%20%20%20%20index%20%3D%20find_one%28nums%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%5Cn%E6%95%B0%E7%BB%84%20%5B%201,%202,%20...,%20n%20%5D%20%E8%A2%AB%E6%89%93%E4%B9%B1%E5%90%8E%20%3D%22,%20nums%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E6%95%B0%E5%AD%97%201%20%E7%9A%84%E7%B4%A2%E5%BC%95%E4%B8%BA%22,%20index%29&codeDivHeight=472&codeDivWidth=350&cumulative=false&curInstr=25&heapPrimitives=nevernest&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=311&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false"> </iframe></div>
<div style="margin-top: 5px;"><a href="https://pythontutor.com/iframe-embed.html#code=import%20random%0A%0Adef%20random_numbers%28n%3A%20int%29%20-%3E%20list%5Bint%5D%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E7%94%9F%E6%88%90%E4%B8%80%E4%B8%AA%E6%95%B0%E7%BB%84%EF%BC%8C%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0%E4%B8%BA%3A%201,%202,%20...,%20n%20%EF%BC%8C%E9%A1%BA%E5%BA%8F%E8%A2%AB%E6%89%93%E4%B9%B1%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20%23%20%E7%94%9F%E6%88%90%E6%95%B0%E7%BB%84%20nums%20%3D%3A%201,%202,%203,%20...,%20n%0A%20%20%20%20nums%20%3D%20%5Bi%20for%20i%20in%20range%281,%20n%20%2B%201%29%5D%0A%20%20%20%20%23%20%E9%9A%8F%E6%9C%BA%E6%89%93%E4%B9%B1%E6%95%B0%E7%BB%84%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0%0A%20%20%20%20random.shuffle%28nums%29%0A%20%20%20%20return%20nums%0A%0Adef%20find_one%28nums%3A%20list%5Bint%5D%29%20-%3E%20int%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E6%9F%A5%E6%89%BE%E6%95%B0%E7%BB%84%20nums%20%E4%B8%AD%E6%95%B0%E5%AD%97%201%20%E6%89%80%E5%9C%A8%E7%B4%A2%E5%BC%95%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20for%20i%20in%20range%28len%28nums%29%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%23%20%E5%BD%93%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0%201%20%E5%9C%A8%E6%95%B0%E7%BB%84%E5%A4%B4%E9%83%A8%E6%97%B6%EF%BC%8C%E8%BE%BE%E5%88%B0%E6%9C%80%E4%BD%B3%E6%97%B6%E9%97%B4%E5%A4%8D%E6%9D%82%E5%BA%A6%20O%281%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%23%20%E5%BD%93%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0%201%20%E5%9C%A8%E6%95%B0%E7%BB%84%E5%B0%BE%E9%83%A8%E6%97%B6%EF%BC%8C%E8%BE%BE%E5%88%B0%E6%9C%80%E5%B7%AE%E6%97%B6%E9%97%B4%E5%A4%8D%E6%9D%82%E5%BA%A6%20O%28n%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20if%20nums%5Bi%5D%20%3D%3D%201%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20return%20i%0A%20%20%20%20return%20-1%0A%0A%22%22%22Driver%20Code%22%22%22%0Aif%20__name__%20%3D%3D%20%22__main__%22%3A%0A%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%2010%0A%20%20%20%20nums%20%3D%20random_numbers%28n%29%0A%20%20%20%20index%20%3D%20find_one%28nums%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%5Cn%E6%95%B0%E7%BB%84%20%5B%201,%202,%20...,%20n%20%5D%20%E8%A2%AB%E6%89%93%E4%B9%B1%E5%90%8E%20%3D%22,%20nums%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E6%95%B0%E5%AD%97%201%20%E7%9A%84%E7%B4%A2%E5%BC%95%E4%B8%BA%22,%20index%29&codeDivHeight=800&codeDivWidth=600&cumulative=false&curInstr=25&heapPrimitives=nevernest&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=311&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">全螢幕觀看 ></a></div>

值得說明的是,我們在實際中很少使用最佳時間複雜度,因為通常只有在很小機率下才能達到,可能會帶來一定的誤導性。而最差時間複雜度更為實用,因為它給出了一個效率安全值,讓我們可以放心地使用演算法。

從上述示例可以看出,最差時間複雜度和最佳時間複雜度只出現於“特殊的資料分佈”,這些情況的出現機率可能很小,並不能真實地反映演算法執行效率。相比之下,平均時間複雜度可以體現演算法在隨機輸入資料下的執行效率,用 \Theta 記號來表示。

對於部分演算法,我們可以簡單地推算出隨機資料分佈下的平均情況。比如上述示例,由於輸入陣列是被打亂的,因此元素 1 出現在任意索引的機率都是相等的,那麼演算法的平均迴圈次數就是陣列長度的一半 n / 2 ,平均時間複雜度為 \Theta(n / 2) = \Theta(n)

但對於較為複雜的演算法,計算平均時間複雜度往往比較困難,因為很難分析出在資料分佈下的整體數學期望。在這種情況下,我們通常使用最差時間複雜度作為演算法效率的評判標準。

!!! question "為什麼很少看到 \Theta 符號?"

可能由於 $O$ 符號過於朗朗上口,因此我們常常使用它來表示平均時間複雜度。但從嚴格意義上講,這種做法並不規範。在本書和其他資料中,若遇到類似“平均時間複雜度 $O(n)$”的表述,請將其直接理解為 $\Theta(n)$ 。